{2}Anattemptatpresentinganexhaustivelistwouldbeunnecessarilycumbersome,butforanideaofrecently-publishedacademicpiecesonthesubject,seeAngelleC.Smith,FrozenAssets:OwnershipofArcticMineralRightsMustbeResolvedtoPreventtheReallyColdWar,GeorgeWashingtonInternationalLawReview,Vol.41,2010,p.651；AldoChircop,TheGrowthofInternationalShippingintheArctic:IsaRegulatoryReviewTimely,TheInternationalJournalofMarineandCoastalLaw,Vol.24,No.2,2009,p.355；MichaelByers,WhoOwnstheArcticUnderstandingSovereigntyDisputesintheNorth,Vancouver:Douglas&MclntyrePublishersINC,2009；RogerHoward,TheArcticGoldRush:TheNevuRaceforTomorrovt/sNaturalResources,London:ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup,2009.
{3}SeeFigure1.SeealsoE.J.Molenaar,ArcticMarineShipping:OverviewoftheInternationalLegalFramework,Gaps,andOptions,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.293(remarkingthat“alltrans-ArcticmarineshippingmustpassthroughtheBeringStrait”）.
{5}UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSeaTreatiesandAgreements:ThirdUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea(doneatMontegoBay),openedforsignatureDecember10,1982,UNDoc.A/Conf.62/122,16Nov1994；reprintedatInternationalLegalMaterials,Vol.21,p.1261andU.N.T.S.,No.1833,p.397[hereinafterUNCLOS].
{8}SeeUNCLOS,Arts.58(1)，87(1).
{9}Seemap2andaccompanyingexplanation.
{10}SeeUNCLOS,Art.2.
{11}SeeUNCLOS,Art.17reads:“SubjecttothisConvention,shipsofallStates,whethercoastalorland-locked,enjoytherightofinnocentpassagethroughtheterritorialsea.”
{12}SeeUNCLOS,Art.18.
{13}SeeUNCLOS,Art.19(1).
{14}Interestingly,thisarticledoesnotstatewhetherthelistisexhaustive,leavingthepossibleinterpretationthatotheractsmayalsobeconsidered“prejudicialtothepeace”ofacoastalState.
{17}MattRoston,NoteandComment,TheNorthwestPassage'sEmergenceasanInternationalHighway,SouthwesternJournalofInternationalLaw,Vol.15,2009,p.450(assertingthelikelihoodofNorthwestPassagebecomingamajornavigationalroutefollowingtheicemelt)；RogerHoward,TheArcticGoldRush:TheNewRaceforTomorrow'sNaturalResources,London:ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup,2009,pp.109～110(statingthatthedistanceofaTokyo-Londonvoyagecouldbereducedby3,500milesifusingArcticroutesinsteadoftheSuezCanalorasmuchas5,500ifusedinsteadofthePanamaCanal;theauthorfurtherrelatesthataBremen-Shanghaivoyagecouldbereducedby3,200miles;inshort,thedistanceofmanysuchjourneyswouldbecutbyaboutathird).
{18}Somesourcesusethetwoappellations“NorthernSeaRoute”(NSR)and“NortheastPassage”synonymously;moreaccurately,thetwoshouldbeconsideredseparateentities,theNSRconstitutingthecenterportionofthelongerNortheastPassage.SeeLeonidTymchenko,TheNorthernSeaRoute:RussianManagementandJurisdictionoverNavigationinArcticSeas,inAlexG.OudeElferinkandDonaldRothwelled.,TheLawoftheSeaandPolarMaritimeDelimitationandJurisdiction,TheHague:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2001,pp.269～291.ThepresentessayusuallyemploysthetermNSRbecausethediscussionrevolvesaroundRussia'slegalstanceconcerningthisroute,whichitregardsasadomesticone.
{21}ClaesLykkeRagner,Dennorrasjvgen,inTorstenHallbeged.,Barents——ettgrnslandiNorden,Stockholm:ArenaNorden,2008,pp.114～127.
{22}MichaelA.Becker,RussiaandtheArctic:OpportunitiesforEngagementwithintheExistingLegalFrameworkSymposium:RussiaandtheRuleofLaw:NewOpportunitiesinDomesticandInternationalAffairs,AmericanUniversityInternationalLawReview,Vol.25,2010,p.241(statingthatinAugust2009twoGerman-ownedships,theBelugaFraternityandBelugaForesight,”undertookandcompletedthevoyage,withRussianapprovalandwithoutice-breakerassistance”）.
{23}LeonidTymchenko,TheNorthernSeaRoute:RussianManagementandJurisdictionoverNavigationinArcticSeas,inAlexG.OudeElferinkandDonaldRothwelled.,TheLawoftheSeaandPolarMaritimeDelimitationandJurisdiction,TheHague:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2001,pp.286～288.OutlinesapossiblesolutiontoproblemsposedbyRussianadministrationofitsNSR,namelyinternationalizationofsaidpassage,perhapsviaaninternationalNSRConvention.
{24}SeegenerallyJohnKennair,Conference:InternationalArcticChangeandtheLawandPoliticsoftheArcticOceanSeabed,AnInconsistentTruth:CanadianForeignPolicyandtheNorthwestPassage,VermontLawReview,Vol.34,2009,p.15；JamesKraska,Symposium:MountingTensionandMeltingIce:ExploringtheLegalandPoliticalFutureoftheArctic,InternationalSecurityandInternationalLawintheNorthwestPassage,VanderbiltJournalofTransnationalLaw,Vol.42,2009,p.1109；MichaelByersandSuzanneLalonde,Symposium:MountingTensionandMeltingIce:ExploringtheLegalandPoliticalFutureoftheArctic,WhoControlstheNorthwestPassageVanderbiltJournalofTransnationalLaw,Vol.42,2009,p.1133.
{27}SeeUNCLOS,partII,sec.3,subsec.A.
{28}SeeUNCLOS,partⅢ.
{29}SeeUNCLOS,Art.45andUnitedNationsConventionontheTerritorialSeaandtheContiguousZone,Art.16(4);seealsoAnaG.LopezMartin,InternationalStraits:Concept,ClassificationandRulesofPassage,Madrid:Springer,2010,pp.109～149.
{30}UNCLOS,Art.19(2).
{31}R.R.ChurchillandA.V.Lowe,TheLawoftheSea,3rded.,JurisPublishing,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999,p.105.
{32}R.R.ChurchillandA.V.Lowe,TheLawoftheSea,3rded.,JurisPublishing,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999,p.107(emphasisinoriginal).
{33}R.R.ChurchillandA.V.Lowe,TheLawoftheSea,3rded.,JurisPublishing,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999,p.107.
{35}SeeUNCLOS,partII,sec.3,subsec.A,UNCLOSpartIUandaccompanyingtext.
{36}UNCLOS,Art.45.
{37}InternationalCourtofJusticeReport,1949,p.4.
{38}InternationalCourtofJusticeReport,Rep.4,1949,p.28.
{39}Incontrast,theUnitedNationsConventionontheTerritorialSeaandtheContiguousZone,Art.16(4)provided:“ThereshallbenosuspensionoftheinnocentpassageofforeignshipsthroughstraitswhichareusedforinternationalnavigationbetweenonepartofthehighseasandanotherpartofthehighseasortheterritorialseaofaforeignState.”ThisarrangementwasreachedatthebehestofIsraelanditsallies,inordertoensurefreenavigationtoandfromtheportofEilat.WangZelin,ResearchontheLegalStatusofArcticPassage,DoctoralThesis,XiamenUniversity,2011(Ch.）,p.l3.UNCLOS,Art.45upholdstheprinciplethatinnocentpassagemaynotbesuspendedinSUFINswhichconnect“apartofthehighseasoranexclusiveeconomiczoneandtheterritorialseaofaforeignState”.
{40}R.R.ChurchillandA.V.Lowe,TheLawoftheSea,3rded.,JurisPublishing,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999,p.105.
{41}Forexample,in1971IndonesiaandMalaysiajointlydeclaredthattheStraitsofMalaccawerenot“aninternationalwaterway”.NadaisanLogaraj,NavigationalSafety,OilPollutionandPassageintheStraitsofMalacca,MalayaLawReview,Vol.20,1978,p.288.
{42}AsofAugust2012.
{43}SeePresidentRonaldReagan'sStatementonUnitedStatesOceanPolicy,10March1983,InternationalLegalMaterials,Vol.22,1983,p.464AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw,Vol.77,1983,p.619.
{46}UNCLOS,Art.37statesthattheSUFINstatusandaccompanyingrightoftransitpassage“appliestostraitswhichareusedforinternationalnavigationbetweenonepartofthehighseasoranexclusiveeconomiczoneandanotherpartofthehighseasoranexclusiveeconomiczone.”ThereisnochronologicalpreconditionmentionedheredefiningwheninternationaltrafficmustbegininastraitforittobeconsideredaSUFIN.
{48}ErikFranckx,TheLegalRegimeofNavigationintheRussianArctic,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.330(statingthat“thecurrentlegalregimeofArcticmarineshippingintheNorthernSeaRoute”isbasedonregulationsdatingbackto1990,ayearbeforetheUSSR'scollapse).
{49}UNCLOS,Art.234reads:CoastalStateshavetherighttoadoptandenforcenon-discriminatorylawsandregulationsfortheprevention,reductionandcontrolofmarinepollutionfromvesselsinice-coveredareaswithinthelimitsoftheexclusiveeconomiczone,whereparticularlysevereclimaticconditionsandthepresenceoficecoveringsuchareasformostoftheyearcreateobstructionsorexceptionalhazardstonavigation,andpollutionofthemarineenvironmentcouldcausemajorharmtoorirreversibledisturbanceoftheecologicalbalance.Suchlawsandregulationsshallhavedueregardtonavigationandtheprotectionandpreservationofthemarineenvironmentbasedonthebestavailablescientificevidence.
{50}JoshuaOwens,EnclosedandSemi-EnclosedSeas:AGlimpseatStatePracticewithSpecialRegardtotheArctic,ChinaOceansLawReview[tobepublished](assertingthatasimilarregimebasedontheenclosedandsemi-enclosedseas,regimemaybeestablishedintheArcticocean).
{51}Thereare,ofcourse,otherinternationaltreatiesthatinfluenceRussia'sgovernanceofitsArcticwaters,butnonesogermanetotheissuesathandastheonesdiscussedabove.AlistofotherrelevantsourcesofinternationallawwithimplicationsforArcticgovernancemaybefoundinMichaelA.Becker,RussiaandtheArctic:OpportunitiesforEngagementwithintheExistingLegalFrameworkSymposium:RussiaandtheRuleofLaw:NewOpportunitiesinDomesticandInternationalAffairs,AmericanUniversityInternationalLawReview,Vol.25,2010,pp.233～234.
{53}UNCLOS,Art.234.
{54}Thecollectionoffeesbyariparianstatefromvesselsmerelytransitingthroughitsterritorialseaisnotallowed,whilechargingforspecialservicesis.SeeUNCLOS,Art.26.
{62}SeeErikFranckx,TheLegalRegimeofNavigationintheRussianArctic,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.327；LeonidTymchenko,TheNorthernSeaRoute:RussianManagementandJurisdictionoverNavigationinArcticSeas,inAlexG.OudeElferinkandDonaldRothwelled.,TheLawoftheSeaandPolarMaritimeDelimitationandJurisdiction,TheHague:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2001；R.DouglasBrubaker,TheRussianArcticStraits,TheHague:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2005.
{63}ErikFranckx,TheLegalRegimeofNavigationintheRussianArctic,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.342(notingthat“substantialchangesaretobeexpectedconcerningthelegalregimeapplicabletoforeignshippingintheRussianArcticinanottoodistantfuture”）.
{64}MichaelA.Becker,RussiaandtheArctic:OpportunitiesforEngagementwithintheExistingLegalFrameworkSymposium:RussiaandtheRuleofLaw:NewOpportunitiesinDomesticandInternationalAffairs,AmericanUniversityInternationalLawReview,Vol.25,2010,p.241.
{65}TherelevantlegislationprovidesthattheNSRends“intheeast(intheBeringStrait)bytheparallel66Nandthemeridian16858'37"W.”1990RegulationsforNavigationontheSeawaysoftheNorthernSeaRoute,approved14Sept.，1990,29IzveshcheniiaMoreplavateliam[NoticestoMariners]（18June,1991）(Rus.）,quotedinErikFranckx,TheLegalRegimeofNavigationintheRussianArctic,JournalofTransnationalLaw&Policy,Vol.18,2009,p.331.Thispointliessometenminutes'latitudenorthoftheDiomedeIslands,adistanceofabout18km（10nm).Seemap2.
{66}Seesec.IVofthepresenttextandUNCLOS,Art.234.
{67}SeeReagan'sStatementonU.S.OceansPolicy,10March,1983,InternationalLegalMaterials,Vol.22,1983,p.464；AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw,Vol.77,1983,p.619.ForadetailedaccountofUSprotestsagainst“excessivemaritimeclaims”,includingrestrictionsonnavigation,seeRobertSmith,NavigationIssuesintheLawoftheSea,inKim,Park,Lee&Paiked.,MaritimeIssuesinthe1990s:Antarctica,LawoftheSeaandMarineEnvironment,SeoulPress,1991,pp.87～125；SeealsoJ.AshleyRoachRobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996.
{68}J.AshleyRoach&RobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996.p.284.
{69}J.AshleyRoachRobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996,pp.284～287.
{70}PresidentialProclamation5928,27December1988.CitedinJ.AshleyRoachRobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996,p.285.
{71}Aide-memoiredelivered4December1984fromAmericanEmbassyStockholm,StateDepartmenttelegram355149,1December1984；AmericanEmbassyStockholmtelegram08539,10December1984.CitedinJ.AshleyRoach&RobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996,p.286.
{72}J.AshleyRoach&RobertW.Smith,UnitedStatesResponsestoExcessiveMaritimeClaims,2nded.,TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1996,pp.286～287.
{77}ThiswouldbefullyinaccordancewithUNCLOS,Art.26,whichstipulates:(1)Nochargemaybelevieduponforeignshipsbyreasononlyoftheirpassagethroughtheterritorialsea;and(2)Chargesmaybelevieduponaforeignshippassingthroughtheterritorialseaaspaymentonlyforspecificservicesrenderedtotheship.Thesechargesshallbeleviedwithoutdiscrimination.
{78}SeeUNCLOS,Art.42(4).
{82}UNCLOS,Art.41.
{83}UNCLOS,Art.43.
{84}Seesec.IE(A)ofthepresenttext.
{85}TheAgreementbetweentheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaandtheGovernmentoftheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublicsconcerningCooperationinCombatingPollutionintheBeringandChukchiSeasinEmergencySituations(signed11May1989,enteredintoforce17August1989）,U.N.T.S.,No.2190,p.180.
{87}Forpre-UNCLOScommentariesonMalaccaStraitsadministration,seeMichaelLeifer,Malacca,SingaporeandIndonesia,SijthoffandNoordhoff,1978；SeealsoNadaisanLoga—raj,NavigationalSafety,OilPollutionandPassageintheStraitsofMalacca,MalayaLawReview,Vol.20,1978,p.287.Formorecurrenttreatments,seeLimLeiTheng,SafetyofNavigationintheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:ModalitiesofCooperation,Rapporteur'sReport,SingaporeJournalofInternational&ComparativeLaw,Vol.2,1998,p.254；NihanUnlli,StraitsofMalacca,InternationalJournalofMarineandCoastalLaw,Vol.21,No.4,2006,p.539.
{88}GurpreetS.Singhota,TheIMO'sRoleinPromotingSafetyofNavigationandControlofMarinePollutionintheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore,SingaporeJournalofInternational&ComparativeLaw,Vol.2,1998,p.291.
{89}SeeJoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.233.
{90}JoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.236.
{91}JoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.236.
{92}JoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.237.
{93}JoshuaH.Ho,EnhancingSafety,Security,andEnvironmentalProtectionoftheStraitsofMalaccaandSingapore:TheCooperativeMechanism,OceanDevelopment&InternationalLaw,Vol.40,2009,p.238.
{94}Ho-SamBang,IsPort—StateControlanEffectiveMeanstoCombatVessel-SourcePollutionAnEmpiricalSurveyofthePracticalExercisebyPortStatesofTheirPowersofControl,InternationalJournalofMarineandCoastalLaw,Vol.23,2008,p.744.
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