ResourceMobilizationTheory(RMT)isasociologicalframeworkthatseekstounderstandtheorganizationalandstrategicaspectsofsocialmovements.Itpositsthatsocialmovementsarenotjustexpressionsofgrievancesorideologybutarealsohighlyrationalandresource-drivenendeavors.Developedinthe1970s,RMThasbeeninstrumentalinsheddinglightonhowsocialmovementsemerge,organize,andachievetheirgoals.
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资源动员理论的关键概念包括：
RMT的发展受到以下几个关键因素的影响：
资源动员理论对社会运动的研究产生了重大影响，并具有以下几个实际意义：
与任何理论框架一样，资源动员理论也面临着批评和局限性：
资源动员理论在各个领域都有实际应用：
Convergentthinkingoccurswhenthesolutiontoaproblemcanbefoundbyapplyingestablishedrulesandlogicalreasoning.Whereasdivergentthinkingisanunstructuredproblem-solvingmethodwhereparticipantsareencouragedtodevelopmanyinnovativeideasorsolutionstoagivenproblem.Whereconvergentthinkingmightworkforlarger,matureorganizationswheredivergentthinkingismoresuitedforstartupsandinnovativecompanies.
Criticalthinkinginvolvesanalyzingobservations,facts,evidence,andargumentstoformajudgmentaboutwhatsomeonereads,hears,says,orwrites.
TheconceptofcognitivebiaseswasintroducedandpopularizedbytheworkofAmosTverskyandDanielKahnemansince1972.Biasesareseenassystematicerrorsandflawsthatmakehumansdeviatefromthestandardsofrationality,thusmakingusineptatmakinggooddecisionsunderuncertainty.
Second-orderthinkingisameansofassessingtheimplicationsofourdecisionsbyconsideringfutureconsequences.Second-orderthinkingisamentalmodelthatconsidersallfuturepossibilities.Itencouragesindividualstothinkoutsideoftheboxsothattheycanprepareforeveryandanyeventuality.Italsodiscouragesthetendencyforindividualstodefaulttothemostobviouschoice.
Lateralthinkingisabusinessstrategythatinvolvesapproachingaproblemfromadifferentdirection.Thestrategyattemptstoremovetraditionallyformulaicandroutineapproachestoproblem-solvingbyadvocatingcreativethinking,thereforefindingunconventionalwaystosolveaknownproblem.Thissortofnon-linearapproachtoproblem-solving,canattimes,createabigimpact.
BoundedrationalityisaconceptattributedtoHerbertSimon,aneconomistandpoliticalscientistinterestedindecision-makingandhowwemakedecisionsintherealworld.Infact,hebelievedthatratherthanoptimizing(whichwasthemainstreamviewinthepastdecades)humansfollowwhathecalledsatisficing.
TheDunning-Krugereffectdescribesacognitivebiaswherepeoplewithlowabilityinataskoverestimatetheirabilitytoperformthattaskwell.Consumersorbusinessesthatdonotpossesstherequisiteknowledgemakebaddecisions.What’smore,knowledgegapspreventthepersonorbusinessfromseeingtheirmistakes.
Occam’sRazorstatesthatoneshouldnotincrease(beyondreason)thenumberofentitiesrequiredtoexplainanything.Allthingsbeingequal,thesimplestsolutionisoftenthebestone.Theprincipleisattributedto14th-centuryEnglishtheologianWilliamofOckham.
TheLindyEffectisatheoryabouttheageingofnon-perishablethings,liketechnologyorideas.PopularizedbyauthorNicholasNassimTaleb,theLindyEffectstatesthatnon-perishablethingsliketechnologyage–linearly–inreverse.Therefore,theolderanideaoratechnology,thesamewillbeitslifeexpectancy.
Antifragilitywasfirstcoinedasatermbyauthor,andoptionstraderNassimNicholasTaleb.Antifragilityisacharacteristicofsystemsthatthriveasaresultofstressors,volatility,andrandomness.Therefore,Antifragileistheoppositeoffragile.Whereafragilethingbreaksuptovolatility;arobustthingresistsvolatility.Anantifragilethinggetsstrongerfromvolatility(providedthelevelofstressorsandrandomnessdoesn’tpassacertainthreshold).
Systemsthinkingisaholisticmeansofinvestigatingthefactorsandinteractionsthatcouldcontributetoapotentialoutcome.Itisaboutthinkingnon-linearly,andunderstandingthesecond-orderconsequencesofactionsandinputintothesystem.
Verticalthinking,ontheotherhand,isaproblem-solvingapproachthatfavorsaselective,analytical,structured,andsequentialmindset.Thefocusofverticalthinkingistoarriveatareasoned,definedsolution.
Maslow’sHammer,otherwiseknownasthelawoftheinstrumentortheEinstellungeffect,isacognitivebiascausinganover-relianceonafamiliartool.Thiscanbeexpressedasthetendencytooveruseaknowntool(perhapsahammer)tosolveissuesthatmightrequireadifferenttool.Thisproblemispersistentinthebusinessworldwhereperhapsknowntoolsorframeworksmightbeusedinthewrongcontext(likebusinessplansusedasplanningtoolsinsteadofonlyinvestors’pitches).
ThePeterPrinciplewasfirstdescribedbyCanadiansociologistLawrenceJ.Peterinhis1969bookThePeterPrinciple.ThePeterPrinciplestatesthatpeoplearecontinuallypromotedwithinanorganizationuntiltheyreachtheirlevelofincompetence.
Thestrawmanfallacydescribesanargumentthatmisrepresentsanopponent’sstancetomakerebuttalmoreconvenient.Thestrawmanfallacyisatypeofinformallogicalfallacy,definedasaflawinthestructureofanargumentthatrendersitinvalid.
TheStreisandEffectisaparadoxicalphenomenonwheretheactofsuppressinginformationtoreducevisibilitycausesittobecomemorevisible.In2003,StreisandattemptedtosuppressaerialphotographsofherCalifornianhomebysuingphotographerKennethAdelmanforaninvasionofprivacy.Adelman,whoStreisandassumedwaspaparazzi,wasinsteadtakingphotographstodocumentandstudycoastalerosion.Inherquestformoreprivacy,Streisand’seffortshadtheoppositeeffect.
AshighlightedbyGermanpsychologistGerdGigerenzerinthepaper“HeuristicDecisionMaking,”thetermheuristicisofGreekorigin,meaning“servingtofindoutordiscover.”Moreprecisely,aheuristicisafastandaccuratewaytomakedecisionsintherealworld,whichisdrivenbyuncertainty.
Therecognitionheuristicisapsychologicalmodelofjudgmentanddecisionmaking.ItispartofasuiteofsimpleandeconomicalheuristicsproposedbypsychologistsDanielGoldsteinandGerdGigerenzer.Therecognitionheuristicarguesthatinferencesaremadeaboutanobjectbasedonwhetheritisrecognizedornot.
TherepresentativenessheuristicwasfirstdescribedbypsychologistsDanielKahnemanandAmosTversky.Therepresentativenessheuristicjudgestheprobabilityofaneventaccordingtothedegreetowhichthateventresemblesabroaderclass.Whenqueried,mostwillchoosethefirstoptionbecausethedescriptionofJohnmatchesthestereotypewemayholdforanarchaeologist.
Thetake-the-bestheuristicisadecision-makingshortcutthathelpsanindividualchoosebetweenseveralalternatives.Thetake-the-best(TTB)heuristicdecidesbetweentwoormorealternativesbasedonasinglegoodattribute,otherwiseknownasacue.Intheprocess,lessdesirableattributesareignored.
Thebundlingbiasisacognitivebiasine-commercewhereaconsumertendsnottousealloftheproductsboughtasagroup,orbundle.Bundlingoccurswhenindividualproductsorservicesaresoldtogetherasabundle.Commonexamplesareticketsandexperiences.Thebundlingbiasdictatesthatconsumersarelesslikelytouseeachiteminthebundle.Thismeansthatthevalueofthebundleandindeedthevalueofeachiteminthebundleisdecreased.
TheBarnumEffectisacognitivebiaswhereindividualsbelievethatgenericinformation–whichappliestomostpeople–isspecificallytailoredforthemselves.
First-principlesthinking–sometimescalledreasoningfromfirstprinciples–isusedtoreverse-engineercomplexproblemsandencouragecreativity.Itinvolvesbreakingdownproblemsintobasicelementsandreassemblingthemfromthegroundup.ElonMuskisamongthestrongestproponentsofthiswayofthinking.
Theladderofinferenceisaconsciousorsubconsciousthinkingprocesswhereanindividualmovesfromafacttoadecisionoraction.TheladderofinferencewascreatedbyacademicChrisArgyristoillustratehowpeopleformandthenusementalmodelstomakedecisions.
Goodhart’sLawisnamedafterBritishmonetarypolicytheoristandeconomistCharlesGoodhart.SpeakingataconferenceinSydneyin1975,Goodhartsaidthat“anyobservedstatisticalregularitywilltendtocollapseoncepressureisplaceduponitforcontrolpurposes.”Goodhart’sLawstatesthatwhenameasurebecomesatarget,itceasestobeagoodmeasure.
TheSixThinkingHatsmodelwascreatedbypsychologistEdwarddeBonoin1986,whonotedthatpersonalitytypewasakeydriverofhowpeopleapproachedproblem-solving.Forexample,optimistsviewsituationsdifferentlyfrompessimists.Analyticalindividualsmaygenerateideasthatamoreemotionalpersonwouldnot,andviceversa.
TheMandelaeffectisaphenomenonwherealargegroupofpeopleremembersaneventdifferentlyfromhowitoccurred.TheMandelaeffectwasfirstdescribedinrelationtoFionaBroome,whobelievedthatformerSouthAfricanPresidentNelsonMandeladiedinprisonduringthe1980s.WhileMandelawasreleasedfromprisonin1990anddied23yearslater,Broomerememberednewscoverageofhisdeathinprisonandevenaspeechfromhiswidow.Ofcourse,neithereventoccurredinreality.ButBroomewaslatertodiscoverthatshewasnottheonlyonewiththesamerecollectionofevents.
Thecrowding-outeffectoccurswhenpublicsectorspendingreducesspendingintheprivatesector.
Thebandwagoneffecttellsusthatthemoreabelieforideahasbeenadoptedbymorepeoplewithinagroup,themoretheindividualadoptionofthatideamightincreasewithinthesamegroup.Thisisthepsychologicaleffectthatleadstoherdmentality.Whatinmarketingcanbeassociatedwithsocialproof.
Moore’slawstatesthatthenumberoftransistorsonamicrochipdoublesapproximatelyeverytwoyears.ThisobservationwasmadebyIntelco-founderGordonMoorein1965anditbecomeaguidingprincipleforthesemiconductorindustryandhashadfar-reachingimplicationsfortechnologyasawhole.
DisruptiveinnovationasatermwasfirstdescribedbyClaytonM.Christensen,anAmericanacademicandbusinessconsultantwhomTheEconomistcalled“themostinfluentialmanagementthinkerofhistime.”Disruptiveinnovationdescribestheprocessbywhichaproductorservicetakesholdatthebottomofamarketandeventuallydisplacesestablishedcompetitors,products,firms,oralliances.
ValuemigrationwasfirstdescribedbyauthorAdrianSlywotzkyinhis1996bookValueMigration–HowtoThinkSeveralMovesAheadoftheCompetition.Valuemigrationisthetransferalofvalue-creatingforcesfromoutdatedbusinessmodelstosomethingbetterabletosatisfyconsumerdemands.
Thebye-noweffectdescribesthetendencyforconsumerstothinkoftheword“buy”whentheyreadtheword“bye”.Inastudythattrackeddinersataname-your-own-pricerestaurant,eachdinerwasaskedtoreadoneoftwophrasesbeforeorderingtheirmeal.Thefirstphrase,“solong”,resultedindinerspayinganaverageof$32permeal.Butwhendinersrecitedthephrase“byebye”beforeordering,theaveragepricepermealroseto$45.
Groupthinkoccurswhenwell-intentionedindividualsmakenon-optimalorirrationaldecisionsbasedonabeliefthatdissentisimpossibleoronamotivationtoconform.Groupthinkoccurswhenmembersofagroupreachaconsensuswithoutcriticalreasoningorevaluationofthealternativesandtheirconsequences.
Astereotypeisafixedandover-generalizedbeliefaboutaparticulargrouporclassofpeople.Thesebeliefsarebasedonthefalseassumptionthatcertaincharacteristicsarecommontoeveryindividualresidinginthatgroup.Manystereotypeshavealongandsometimescontroversialhistoryandareadirectconsequenceofvariouspolitical,social,oreconomicevents.Stereotypingistheprocessofmakingassumptionsaboutapersonorgroupofpeoplebasedonvariousattributes,includinggender,race,religion,orphysicaltraits.
Murphy’sLawstatesthatifanythingcangowrong,itwillgowrong.Murphy’sLawwasnamedafteraerospaceengineerEdwardA.Murphy.DuringhistimeworkingatEdwardsAirForceBasein1949,Murphycursedatechnicianwhohadimproperlywiredanelectricalcomponentandsaid,“Ifthereisanywaytodoitwrong,he’llfindit.”
ThelawofunintendedconsequenceswasfirstmentionedbyBritishphilosopherJohnLockewhenwritingtoparliamentabouttheunintendedeffectsofinterestraterises.However,itwaspopularizedin1936byAmericansociologistRobertK.Mertonwholookedatunexpected,unanticipated,andunintendedconsequencesandtheirimpactonsociety.
Fundamentalattributionerrorisabiaspeopledisplaywhenjudgingthebehaviorofothers.Thetendencyistoover-emphasizepersonalcharacteristicsandunder-emphasizeenvironmentalandsituationalfactors.
Outcomebiasdescribesatendencytoevaluateadecisionbasedonitsoutcomeandnotontheprocessbywhichthedecisionwasreached.Inotherwords,thequalityofadecisionisonlydeterminedoncetheoutcomeisknown.Outcomebiasoccurswhenadecisionisbasedontheoutcomeofpreviouseventswithoutregardforhowthoseeventsdeveloped.
Hindsightbiasisthetendencyforpeopletoperceivepasteventsasmorepredictablethantheyactuallywere.Theresultofapresidentialelection,forexample,seemsmoreobviouswhenthewinnerisannounced.Thesamecanalsobesaidfortheavidsportsfanwhopredictedthecorrectoutcomeofamatchregardlessofwhethertheirteamwonorlost.Hindsightbias,therefore,isthetendencyforanindividualtoconvincethemselvesthattheyaccuratelypredictedaneventbeforeithappened.