Eachjurisdictionhasitsownlaws,courtsystem,lawyersandjudges.However:
Moreover,theprocessofdevolutionhasresultedinvariationsbetweenthelawsofWalesandthoseofEngland,andevenasbetweendifferentregionsinEngland.ActsofParliamentcantakeeffectdifferently,oratdifferenttimes,indifferentpartsofthejurisdictionofEnglandandWales.
ThisarticleismainlyaboutthelegalsystemofEnglandandWales,thoughtheremaybesimilaritieswithotherjurisdictions.
Lawsmaybedefinedastherulesthatgovernthebehaviourofhumanbeingswithinacivilizedsociety.Unlikescientificlaws,whicharediscernedfromobservationofthematerialuniverseandareimmutable(thoughourknowledgeofthemmaychange),legallawsaredecidedanddeclaredbyhumanbeings,andmaybechangedbyfurtherhumanintervention.Thisistruewhetherthejustificationofthelawisreligious,philosophicalorpolitical.
Sourcesoflawmaybedescribedasprimaryorsecondary.
Primarysourceoflaware
Secondarysourcesoflaware
allofwhicharetreatedas“persuasive”andmaybetakenintoaccountbyacourtwhenmakingadecision,thoughthecourtisnotboundtodoso.
Thecommonlawisthelawdeclaredbyjudges,derivedfromcustomandprecedent.ItoriginatedwiththelegalreformsofKingHenryIIinthe12thcenturyandwascalled“common”becauseitappliedequallyacrossthewholecountry.Thedoctrineofbindingprecedent,wherebycourtsfollowandapplytheprinciplesdeclaredinpreviouscasesdecidedbymoreseniorcourts,knownas“courtsofrecord”,isalsoknownbytheLatinexpression“staredecisis”.
Thecommonlawincludesbothsubstantiverules,suchastheoffenceofmurder,andproceduralones,suchascourtprocedurerulesderivedfromtheinherentjurisdictionofthecourt.
Commonlawrulesmaybesupersededorreplacedbylegislation,whichissaidto“trump”ortakeprecedenceoverthecommonlaw.Offencesoftheft,forexample,basedontheoldcommonlawoffenceoflarceny,arenowgovernedbytheTheftActs1968,1978etc;andtheoriginalpenaltiesformurder(thoughnottheoffenceitself)werereplacedbystatutessuchastheHomicideAct1957.
Thereisalimittotheextenttowhichcommonlawjudges,howevercreativeor“activist”,canreformanout-of-datelaw,particularlyifitderivesfromastatute.Insuchcircumstances,onlyParliamentcanchangethelaw.TheneedforsuchachangeoftenfollowsaperiodofresearchandconsultationbytheLawCommission,whichwassetuptoreviewandproposereformtooldorinadequatelaws.
Thecommonlawwashistoricallyadministeredintheking’scourts,andequitydevelopedasaseparatesystemofmainlydiscretionaryremediesadministeredbytheLordChancellor,oftenasawayofamelioratingtheinjusticedonebyinflexiblerulesofthecommonlaw.EquitableconceptssuchastrustsarenowgenerallydealtwithaspartofthebusinessoftheChanceryDivisionintheHighCourt,butsincetheJudicatureActsof1873-75,whenthesystemsoflawandequitywerefused,theyhavenolongerbeentreatedasseparatejurisdictionsandbothlegalandequitableremediescanbeprovidedinallthecourts.
Civillawmaybedefinedinoppositiontothreealternatives.
Themeaningthusdependsonthecontext.Acriminalcasemaybedecidedinacivilcourtifthatcourtisasecularratherthanareligiousoneoristhecourtofacontinentallegalsystem,suchasthatofFrance.Butacivilcourtinthefirstsense,suchastheChanceryDivisionoftheHighCourt,isnotgoingtoholdamurdertrial;instead,suchacasewouldbeheardinacriminalcourt,egtheCrownCourt.
Thelawofcontractisconcernedwiththeformationandinterpretation(or‘construction’)ofwrittenororalagreementsbetweencompaniesorindividuals.Acontractdoesnothavetobewrittendowntobeabindingcontract.Disputesovercontractsmayconcernwhetherornotacontractevercameintoexistence,whatitsvarioustermsandconditionsactuallymeant,whetheronepartyhasbroken(‘breached’)thecontractand,ifso,whatremedy(suchasdamages,aninjunctionorspecificperformance)shouldbeordered.
Atortisalegalwrong.Aclaimbasedonatortusuallyrequirestheclaimanttoestablishthatthedefendantoweda‘dutyofcare’andthattheybrokethatduty.Classictypesofclaimintortarethosebasedonnegligence,nuisance,defamation,misuseofprivateinformation,etc.Sometimesaclaimmayinvolvebothcontractandtort,butaclaimbasedintortdoesnotrequiretheretobeanycontractbetweentheparties,simplythatoneofthemowedtheotheraduty.Suchadutymayhavebeendevelopedeitheratcommonlaworunderastatute.
Companylawisconcernedwiththeformationandregulationofcompaniesandcorporations,whichareseparatelegalpersonsfromtheindividualswhoownthem(usuallybyacquiringsharesinthecapitalvalueofthecompany),knownas‘members’,andthosewhomanageanddirecttheiractivities,knownas‘directors’.Whenacompany’sdebtsexceeditsincomeandcapitalitbecomesinsolvent,andmaybeputintoadministrationor,eventually,woundupaltogether.Theremaybeclaimsbydifferentclassesofcreditorandregulatoryproceedingsmaybetakenagainstthedirectors.Companylawcoversallthesematters.
Revenuelawdealswithdisputesovertheassessmentoftaxesanddutiesleviedonorganisationsandindividualsbythegovernment.Typesoftaxincludeincometax,corporationtax,capitalgainstax,inheritancetax,VATetcareallcovered.RevenuelawissocalledaftertheInlandRevenuedepartment,nowmergedwithCustomsandExcise(responsibleforlevyingdutiessuchasimportduty,excisedutyetc)toformHerMajesty’sRevenueandCustoms(HMRC).
Medialawdealswithdisputesovertheregulationofandthecontentpublishedorbroadcastbymediaorganisationsandindividuals(suchasjournalists)whogeneratethatcontent.Informationlawisconcernedwithrights(suchasFreedomofInformation)andduties(suchasdataprotection)relatingtoinformation.Communicationslawincludestelecommunications,theinternetandsocialmedia,thoughthereisconsiderableoverlapwithmediaandinformationlaw.TheyareallamongthetypesofbusinessdealtwithbytheMediaandCommunicationsListintheQueen’sBenchDivision.
Familylawisconcernedwithmarriageanddivorce,children,andmatrimonialfinance.Someissuesinvolvingchildrenaredescribedasprivatelawcases,becausetheyonlyinvolveprivateindividuals(usuallytheparentsorguardians)butotherdisputes,suchascareproceedingsinvolvingthelocalauthorityandotherparties,aredescribedaspubliclawcases.
Casesinvolvingchildrenmayrelatetomedicaltreatmentforwhich,byvirtueoftheirage,orlackofcapacity,theyareunabletoprovideconsent.SimilarcasesinvolvingadultslackingcapacityaredealtwithbytheCourtofProtection,whichalsodealswithadministrativeissuessuchaswhereanadultlackingcapacityshouldliveanddecisionsabouttheirfinancialaffairs.