英文版来自网络,中文翻译来自天涯论坛的网友“忽然惊涛”]
TheCaseFor
AGM-FreeSustainableWorld
无转基因可持续发展的世界
IndependentSciencePanel
独立科研小组TheCaseFor
Draftedby起草
Mae-WanHoandLimLiChing何美芸(又译侯美婉)、林丽珍withcontributionsfrom小组其他参与人员包括:JoeCummins,MalcolmHooper,MiguelAltieri,PeterRosset,ArpadPusztai(阿帕德·普兹泰),StanleyEwen,MichelPimbert,PeterSaunders,EdwardGoldsmith,DavidQuist,EvaNovotny,VyvyanHoward,BrianJohn
andothersonthePanel
15June2003London
TheCaseForAGM-FreeSustainableWorld
Publishedby出版:InstituteofScienceinSociety社会中的科学研究所POBox32097LondonNW10XR,UK&ThirdWorldNetwork第三世界网络121-SJalanUtama10450Penang,Malaysia
PrintedbyJutaprint2SolokSungeiPinang3,Sg.Pinang11600Penang,Malaysia
ISBN:0-9544923-1-5(ISIS)ISBN:983-9747-99-1(TWN)
Preface前言
MembersoftheIndependentSciencePanel(ISP)onGMhavehadtheopportunitytoreviewextensivescientificandotherevidenceongeneticengineeringoverthepastdecades.Manyareamongthemorethan600scientistsfrom72countrieswhohavesignedan‘OpenLetterfromWorldScientiststoAllGovernments’[1],initiatedin1999,whichcalledforamoratoriumontheenvironmentalreleaseofgeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMOs),abanonpatentsonlivingprocesses,organisms,seeds,celllinesandgenes,andacomprehensivepublicenquiryintothefutureofagricultureandfoodsecurity.转基因独立科研小组(ISP)的成员有幸能有机会回顾过去几十年转基因工程的广泛科学证据及其它证据。他们中大多数都是签署了1999年发起之“世界科学家致各国政府的公开信”的600名来自72个国家的科学家成员之一,他们在信中呼吁暂停转基因生物(GMO)的环境释放,禁止活体加工、生物体、种子、细胞株及细胞基因的专利,并要求在农业和粮食安全未来的议题上要向公众做全面询问。
Scientificandotherdevelopmentssince1999haveconfirmedourconcernsoverthesafetyofgeneticengineering,geneticallymodified(GM)cropsandfoodsecurity.Atthesametime,thesuccessesandbenefitsofthedifferentformsofsustainableagricultureareundeniable.Theevidence,nowassembled,makesastrongcaseforaworldwidebanonallenvironmentalreleaseofGMcropstomakewayforacomprehensiveshifttoagroecology,sustainableagricultureandorganicfarming.1999年以后的科学及其它发展使我们对基因工程和转基因农作物的安全及粮食安全的担忧得到确认。同时,各种形式可持续农业的成功和好处应该得到重视。目前收集的证据强烈要求世界范围内禁止所有转基因农作物释放到环境,为全面转移到生态农业、可持续农业和有机农业铺平道路。
TheevidenceonwhyGMcropsarenotaviableoptionforasustainablefutureispresentedinParts1and2,whilePart3presentsevidenceonthesuccessesandbenefitsofsustainableagriculturalpractices.第1和第2部分将列举证据说明为什么转基因农作物不是未来可持续发展的选择,而第3部分将指出可持续农业的成功之处与好处。
Note注释
ThisReportisasummaryofavastamountofliterature.Wehaveincludedasmuchoftheprimarysourcesaspossible,butmanyofthepaperscitedinthelistofreferencesarethemselvesextensivereviewsofscientificandotherliterature,submittedtovariousnationalandinternationalbodiesthathavecalledforevidence.本报告是各种文献著作的总结。我们尽可能包括了主要的资源,但是参考书目中引用的很多论文本身就是对提交给收集证据之各国内、国际机构的科学及其它文献的广泛评审。InproducingtheISPReport,ISPmembersareresponsibleforthoseareaswheretheyhavespecificcompetence,whilegivingoverallendorsementtothereportasawhole.EachISPmemberalsorecognisestheexpertiseandauthorityofotherISPmembersinthoseareaswheretheythemselvesdonothavespecificcompetence.撰写此份ISP报告时,ISP成员有责任对其能胜任的领域负责,同时对报告整体表示认同。每个IPS成员对其他ISP成员在前者不能胜任之领域的鉴定与权威也表示认同。Contents目录
Prefacei前言ExecutiveSummaryv概述Part1:NoFutureforGMcrops1第一部分:转基因农作物没有未来
1WhyNotGMCrops31.为什么不要转基因农作物
2EscalatingProblemsontheFarm72.农业问题升级
Part2:GMCropsNotSafe13第二部分:转基因农作物不安全
3Science&Precaution153.科学与预防原则4SafetyTestsonGMFoods204.转基因食品的安全测试5TransgeneHazards235.转基因危害6TerminatorCropsSpreadMaleSterility256.终结者农作物使雄性不育蔓延
7HerbicideHazards277.除草剂危害
8HorizontalGeneTransfer318.基因横向转移
9TheCaMV35SPromoter339.CaMV35S启动子
10TransgenicDNAMoreLikelytoSpread3710.转基因DNA更容易传播
11HorizontalTransferofTransgenicDNA4011.转基因DNA的横向转移.
12HazardsofHorizontalGeneTransfer4612.基因横向转移的危害
13ConclusiontoParts1&24813.第一、二部分结论
Part3:TheManifoldBenefitsofSustainableAgriculture51第三部分:可持续农业的多种好处.
14WhySustainableAgriculture5314.为什么要推行可持续农业?
15HigherorComparableProductivity&Yields5615.更高或相当的生产力和产量
16BetterSoils6216.更肥沃的土壤
17CleanerEnvironment6617.更清洁的环境
18ReducedPesticides&NoIncreaseinPests6818.杀虫剂减少,害虫并未增加
19SupportingBiodiversity&UsingDiversity7119.支持生物多样性,利用多样性
20Environmental&EconomicSustainability7620.环境与经济的可持续性
21AmelioratingClimateChange7921.改善气候变化
22Efficient&ProfitableProduction8222.有效、有盈利的生产
23ImprovedFoodSecurity&BenefitstoLocalCommunities8523.粮食安全改善、本地社区受益
24OrganicsforHealth8924.有机食物有益健康
25ConclusiontoPart39225.第三部分总结
References93参考文献
IndependentSciencePanelonGM:ListofMembers113转基因独立科研小组成员名单
iv
ExecutiveSummary概述
WhyGMFree为什么不要转基因?
1.GMcropsfailedtodeliverpromisedbenefits1.转基因农作物未能带来许诺的好处
Theconsistentfindingfromindependentresearchandon-farmsurveyssince1999isthatgeneticallymodified(GM)cropshavefailedtodeliverthepromisedbenefitsofsignificantlyincreasingyieldsorreducingherbicideandpesticideuse.GMcropshavecosttheUnitedStates(US)anestimated$12billioninfarmsubsidies,lostsalesandproductrecallsduetotransgeniccontamination.Massivefailuresininsect-resistantBtcottonofupto100%werereportedinIndia.自1999年以来不断进行的独立研究和现场农业调查发现,转基因(GM)农作物未能带来许诺的好处,没有使产量大幅提高,也没有减少除草剂和杀虫剂的使用。转基因农作物使美国在农业补贴方面花费了约120亿美元,并因转基因污染使销售减少,产品被召回。据报导,印度Bt抗虫棉大量失败,高达100%。
Biotechcorporationshavesufferedrapiddeclinesince2000,andinvestmentadvisorsforecastnofuturefortheagriculturalsector.Meanwhile,worldwideresistancetoGMhasreachedaclimaxwhenZambiain2002refusedGMmaize(corn)infoodaiddespitethethreatoffamine.自2000年以来生物技术公司迅速下滑,投资顾问预测转基因农业没有未来。同时,2002年赞比亚虽然面临饥荒的威胁却拒绝接受食品援助中的转基因玉米,使世界抵抗转基因的运动达到高潮。
2.GMcropsposingescalatingproblemsonthefarm2.转基因农作物使农业问题升级
Theinstabilityoftransgeniclineshasplaguedtheindustryfromthebeginning,andthismayberesponsibleforastringofmajorcropfailures.Areviewin1994stated,“Whiletherearesomeexamplesofplantswhichshowstableexpressionofatransgenethesemayprovetobetheexceptionstotherule.Inaninformalsurveyofover30companiesinvolvedinthecommercialisationoftransgeniccropplants….almostalloftherespondentsindicatedthattheyhadobservedsomeleveloftransgeneinaction.Manyrespondentsindicatedthatmostcasesoftransgeneinactivationneverreachtheliterature.”转基因品系的不稳定从一开始就在折磨该产品,这也可能是一系列主要农作物失败的原因。1994年的一项回顾陈述,“虽然一些植物的转基因表达显示稳定,但这可能会被证明是例外情况。在对30家从事转基因农作物商业的公司进行的一项非正式调查中发现……几乎所有的回答者都指出,他们曾观察到了某种程度上的转入的基因失活。很多回答者表示,大多数转基因失活从来没有在书面上承认。”
Tripleherbicide-tolerantoilseedrape(canola)volunteersthathavecombinedtransgenicandnon-transgenictraitsarenowwidespreadinCanada.Similarmultipleherbicide-tolerantvolunteersandweedshaveemergedintheUS.IntheUS,glyphosate-tolerantweedsareplaguingGMcottonandsoyafields,andatrazine,oneofthemosttoxicherbicides,hashadtobeusedwithglufosinate-tolerantGMmaize.结合了转基因和非转基因特点的三价耐除草剂油菜,自生杂草目前在加拿大分布十分广泛。类似的多价耐除草剂自生植物和种子开始在美国出现。在美国,耐草甘膦的杂草正折磨域转基因棉花和大豆种植地,而最具毒性的除草剂之一-莠去津则必须与耐草胺膦的转基因玉米一同使用。
BtbiopesticidetraitsaresimultaneouslythreateningtocreatesuperweedsandBt-resistantpests.Bt生物杀虫剂的特点同时也会促使超级杂草和抗Bt害虫的产生。
3.Extensivetransgeniccontaminationunavoidable3.广泛的转基因污染无法避免
ExtensivetransgeniccontaminationhasoccurredinmaizelandracesgrowinginremoteregionsinMexicodespiteanofficialmoratoriumthathasbeeninplacesince1998.HighlevelsofcontaminationhavesincebeenfoundinCanada.Inatestof33samplesofcertifiedcanola(oilseedrape)seedstocks,32werefoundcontaminated.尽管自1998年以来官方已经暂禁种植,但墨西哥偏远地区种植的玉米地方品种还是广泛被转基因污染。在加拿大也曾经发现了高度的污染。在对33个经批准的油菜库存进行的一项测试发现,32个受到了污染。
Newresearchshowsthattransgenicpollen,wind-blownanddepositedelsewhere,orfallendirectlytotheground,isamajorsourceoftransgeniccontamination.Contaminationisgenerallyacknowledgedtobeunavoidable,hencetherecanbenoco-existenceoftransgenicandnon-transgeniccrops.最新研究显示,转基因花粉被风传到其他地方并沉积,或者直接落到地面上是转基因污染的一个重大源泉。通常认为污染是不可避免的,因此,转基因农作物和非转基因农作物不可共存。
4.GMcropsnotsafe4.转基因农作物不安全
Contrarytotheclaimsofproponents,GMcropshavenotbeenprovensafe.Theregulatoryframeworkwasfatallyflawedfromthestart.Itwasbasedonananti-precautionaryapproachdesignedtoexpediteproductapprovalattheexpenseofsafetyconsiderations.与倡议者声称的相反,转基因农作物并未被证明安全。法律框架从一开始就有致命缺陷。这个框架是以违反预防原则为基础,其初衷是以安全考虑为代价来加速产品的批准。
Theprincipleof‘substantialequivalence’,onwhichriskassessmentisbased,isintendedtobevagueandill-defined,therebygivingcompaniescompletelicenceinclaimingtransgenicproducts‘substantiallyequivalent’tonon-transgenicproducts,andhence‘safe’.构成风险评估基础的“实质等同”原则有意显得模糊、定义松散,因此让公司可以完成执照申请,声称转基因产品与非转基因产品“实质等同”,因此“安全”。
5.GMfoodraisesserioussafetyconcerns5.转基因食品带来严重的安全隐患
TherehavebeenveryfewcrediblestudiesonGMfoodsafety.Nevertheless,theavailablefindingsalreadygivecauseforconcern.InthestillonlysystematicinvestigationonGMfoodevercarriedoutintheworld,‘growthfactor-like’effectswerefoundinthestomachandsmallintestineofyoungratsthatwerenotfullyaccountedforbythetrans-geneproduct,andwerehenceattributabletothetransgenicprocessorthetransgenicconstruct,andmayhencebegeneraltoallGMfood.转基因食品的安全性几乎没有可信的研究。不管怎样,现有的发现已经给出了担心的理由。世界范围内对转基因食品进行的系统性调查发现,幼鼠的胃和小肠中有“生长因子”效应,这可能不完全是转基因产品造成的,可能可以归于转基因制程或转基因构造,对所有转基因食品来说可能都很普遍。
Therehavebeenatleasttwoother,morelimited,studiesthatalsoraisedserioussafetyconcerns.至少还有两项专门研究也指出了严重的安全隐患。
6.Dangerousgeneproductsareincorporatedintocrops6.危险的基因产物正被加入农作物中
Btproteins,incorporatedinto25%ofalltransgeniccropsworldwide,havebeenfoundharmfultoarangeofnon-targetinsects.Someofthemarealsopotentimmunogensandallergens.AteamofscientistshascautionedagainstreleasingBtcropsforhumanuse.在世界25%转基因农作物中都已加入的Bt蛋白质发现对很多非耙标性昆虫有害。一些还是有力的免疫原和过敏原。一科学家团体曾对释放Bt的农作物供人类使用提出警告。
7.Terminatorcropsspreadmalesterility7.终结者农作物使雄性不育蔓延
Cropsengineeredwith‘suicide’genesformalesterilityhavebeenpromotedasameansof‘containing’,i.e.,preventing,thespreadoftrans-genes.Inreality,thehybridcropssoldtofarmersspreadbothmalesterilesuicidegenesaswellherbicidetolerancegenesviapollen.用导致雄性不育之“自杀式”基因改造的农作物被作为“防止”转基因传播的方法来推崇。事实上,向农户出售的杂交农作物通过花粉既传播了雄性不育自杀式基因,也传播了耐除草剂基因。
8.Broad-spectrumherbicideshighlytoxictohumansandotherspecies8.广谱除草剂对人类和其他物种高度有害
Glufosinateammoniumandglyphosateareusedwiththeherbicide-toleranttransgeniccropsthatcurrentlyaccountfor75%ofalltransgeniccropsworldwide.Botharesystemicmetabolicpoisonsexpectedtohaveawiderangeofharmfuleffects,andthesehavebeenconfirmed.草胺膦和草甘膦与耐除草剂的转基因农作物一同使用,这在当前世界转基因农作物中占了75%。两者都是系统性代谢毒药,有一系列的有害效果,且已经得到证实。
Glufosinateammoniumislinkedtoneurological,respiratory,gastrointestinalandhaematologicaltoxicities,andbirthdefectsinhumansandmammals.Itistoxictobutterfliesandanumberofbeneficialinsects,alsotothelarvaeofclamsandoysters,Daphniaandsomefreshwaterfish,especiallytherainbowtrout.Itinhibitsbeneficialsoilbacteriaandfungi,especiallythosethatfixnitrogen.草胺膦与人类和哺乳动物的神经、呼吸、胃肠、血液毒性及出生缺陷有关联。它对蝴蝶及一系列益虫有毒,对蛤和牡蛎的幼虫水蚤和一些淡水鱼,尤其是虹鳟鱼也有毒。还会抑制土地中的有益细菌和真菌,尤其是固氮的细菌和真菌。
GlyphosateisthemostfrequentcauseofcomplaintsandpoisoningintheUK.Disturbancesofmanybodyfunctionshavebeenreportedafterexposuresatnormaluselevels.Glyphosateexposurenearlydoubledtheriskoflatespontaneousabortion,andchildrenborntousersofglyphosatehadelevatedneurobehavioraldefects.Glyphosatecausedretardeddevelopmentofthefoetalskeletoninlaboratoryrats.Glyphosateinhibitsthesynthesisofsteroids,andisgenotoxicinmammals,fishandfrogs.Fielddoseexposureofearthwormscausedatleast50percentmortalityandsignificantintestinaldamageamongsurvivingworms.Roundupcausedcelldivisiondysfunctionthatmaybelinkedtohumancancers.草甘膦是英国各种投诉和中毒最频繁的原因。据说接触正常使用水平也可能使很多身体功能受到干扰。接触草甘膦几乎使晚期自发性流产机率翻倍,草甘膦使用者的后代神经行为缺陷机率也增高。在实验室老鼠身上发现草甘膦导致胎儿骨骼发育迟缓。草甘膦还会抑制类固醇合成,对哺乳动物、鱼类和青蛙也有毒。蚯蚓接触土地中的药剂后至少50%会死亡,而存活的也很大程度上存在肠损伤。“农达”除草剂导致细胞功能障碍,这可能与人类癌症有关。
Theknowneffectsofbothglufosinateandglyphosatearesufficientlyseriousforallfurtherusesoftheherbicidestobehalted.草胺膦和草甘膦已知的效果已经足够说服我们停止进一步使用除草剂。
9.Geneticengineeringcreatessuper-viruses9.基因工程使超级病毒诞生Byfarthemostinsidiousdangersofgeneticengineeringareinherenttotheprocessitself,whichgreatlyenhancesthescopeandprobabilityofhorizontalgenetransferandrecombination,themainroutetocreatingvirusesandbacteriathatcausediseaseepidemics.Thiswashighlighted,in2001,bythe'accidental'creationofakillermousevirusinthecourseofanapparentlyinnocentgeneticengineeringexperiment.到目前为止,基因工程最大的危险与其本身的制程有关,这很大程度上扩大了基因横向转移和重组(产生导致流行疾病病毒和细菌的主要路线)的范围和概率。2001年时,此种情况十分突出,一次对明显无害之基因的改造试验却“偶然”创造出老鼠杀手病毒。
Newertechniques,suchasDNAshuffling,areallowinggeneticiststocreateinamatterofminutesinthelaboratorymillionsofrecombinantvirusesthathaveneverexistedinbillionsofyearsofevolution.最新的技术,如DNA改组(DNAShuffling)技术使遗传学家可以在实验室里几分钟内就创造出数百万在上亿年进化中都未曾存在的重组病毒。
Disease-causingvirusesandbacteriaandtheirgeneticmaterialarethepredominantmaterialsandtoolsforgeneticengineering,asmuchasfortheintentionalcreationofbio-weapons.导致疾病的病毒和细菌及其基因物质是基因工程的主要材料和工具,差不多可故意用于制造生物武器。
10.TransgenicDNAinfoodtakenupbybacteriainhumangut10.食品中的转基因DNA被人的消化道内的细菌吸收
ThereisalreadyexperimentalevidencethattransgenicDNAfromplantshasbeentakenupbybacteriainthesoilandinthegutofhumanvolunteers.Antibioticresistancemarkergenescanspreadfromtransgenicfoodtopathogenicbacteria,makinginfectionsverydifficulttotreat.已有实验证明,植物中的转基因DNA被土壤和人的消化道中的细菌吸收。抵抗抗生素特质(antibioticresistance)的标志基因(markergene)可以从转基因食品传播到致病细菌,使感染更加难以治疗。
11.TransgenicDNAandcancer11.转基因DNA与癌症
TransgenicDNAisknowntosurvivedigestioninthegutandtojumpintothegenomeofmammaliancells,raisingthepossibilityfortriggeringcancer.众所周知,转基因DNA能在内脏消化过程中生存,并转入哺乳动物细胞的基因组中,增加了引发癌症的可能性。
ThepossibilitycannotbeexcludedthatfeedingGMproductssuchasmaizetoanimalsalsocarriesrisks,notjustfortheanimalsbutalsoforhumanbeingsconsumingtheanimalproducts.用转基因产品,如玉米饲养动物也不排除有风险,不仅仅是对动物,而且是对食用动物产品的人都有风险。
12.CaMV35Spromoterincreaseshorizontalgenetransfer12.CaMV35S启动子使基因横向转移增强
EvidencesuggeststhattransgenicconstructswiththeCaMV35Spromotermightbeespeciallyunstableandpronetohorizontalgenetransferandrecombination,withalltheattendanthazards:genemutationsduetorandominsertion,cancer,reactivationofdormantvirusesandgenerationofnewviruses.ThispromoterispresentinmostGMcropsbeinggrowncommerciallytoday.有证据显示,带CaMV35S启动子的转基因构造可能尤其不稳定,易于使基因水平转移和重组,出现所有伴随危害:因随意插入而导致基因变异,癌症、休眠病毒恢复活动及新病毒产生等。这种启动子在当今商业种植的大多数转基因农作物中都存在。
13.Ahistoryofmisrepresentationandsuppressionofscientificevidence
13.科学证据被歪曲和隐瞒的历程
Therehasbeenahistoryofmisrepresentationandsuppressionofscientificevidence,especiallyonhorizontalgenetransfer.Keyexperimentsfailedtobeperformed,orwereperformedbadlyandthenmisrepresented.Manyexperimentswerenotfollowedup,includinginvestigationsonwhethertheCaMV35Spromoterisresponsibleforthe‘growthfactor-like’effectsobservedinyoungratsfedGMpotatoes.科学证据,尤其是关于基因横向转移的证据曾经历了被歪曲和隐瞒的历程。关键的实验未被进行,或者进行得很糟糕,于是被歪曲。很多实验并没有进行跟踪,包括CaMV35S启动子是否应对用转基因马铃薯饲养的幼鼠中观察到的‘生长因子’效果负责进行调查。
Inconclusion,GMcropshavefailedtodeliverthepromisedbenefitsandareposingescalatingproblemsonthefarm.Transgeniccontaminationisnowwidelyacknowledgedtobeunavoidable,andhencetherecanbenoco-existenceofGMandnon-GMagriculture.Mostimportantofall,GMcropshavenotbeenprovensafe.Onthecontrary,sufficientevidencehasemergedtoraiseserioussafetyconcerns,thatifignoredcouldresultinirreversibledamagetohealthandtheenvironment.GMcropsshouldbefirmlyrejectednow.总的来说,转基因农作物未能带来许诺的好处,使农业问题升级。转基因污染现被广泛认为不可避免,因此,转基因农业和非转基因农业不可共存。最重要的是,转基因农作物并未被证明安全。相反,有足够的证据显示对其安全隐患表示担心,如果忽视,将导致对健康和环境无法改变的损害。现在,应坚决拒绝转基因农作物。
WhySustainableAgriculture为什么要推行可持续农业?
1.Higherproductivityandyields,especiallyintheThirdWorld1.生产力和产量更高,尤其是在第三世界
Some8.98millionfarmershaveadoptedsustainableagriculturepracticeson28.92millionhectaresinAsia,LatinAmericaandAfrica.Reliabledatafrom89projectsshowhigherproductivityandyields:50100%increaseinyieldforrainfedcrops,and5-10%forirrigatedcrops.TopsuccessesincludeBurkinaFaso,whichturnedacerealdeficitof644kgperyeartoanannualsurplusof153kg;Ethiopia,where12500householdsenjoyed60%increaseincropyields;andHondurasandGuatemala,where45000familiesincreasedyieldsfrom400-600kg/hato2000-2500kg/ha.亚洲、拉美和非洲有898万农民在2892万公顷的土地上采用了可持续农业的做法。89个项目的可靠数据显示生产力和产量都更高:旱作物的产量增加了50-100%,灌溉作物增加了5-10%。最成功的例子包括:布基纳法索,该国使每年644公斤谷类作物赤字转变为每年153公斤的盈余;在埃塞俄比亚,12500家农户的作物产量增加了60%;而在洪都拉斯和危地马拉,45000户家庭的产量从400-600公斤/公顷增加到2000-2500公斤/公顷。
Long-termstudiesinindustrialisedcountriesshowyieldsfororganiccomparabletoconventionalagriculture,andsometimeshigher.对工业国家的长期研究显示,有机农业产量与常规农业相当,有时更高一些。2.Bettersoils2.更肥沃的土壤
Sustainableagriculturalpracticestendtoreducesoilerosion,aswellasimprovesoilphysicalstructureandwater-holdingcapacity,whicharecrucialinavertingcropfailuresduringperiodsofdrought.可持续农业做法可减少土壤侵蚀,并改善土壤的物理结构和涵水能力,这对干旱时期防止农作物干死十分重要。Soilfertilityismaintainedorincreasedbyvarioussustainableagriculturepractices.Studiesshowthatsoilorganicmatterandnitrogenlevelsarehigherinorganicthaninconventionalfields.土壤的肥沃可通过各种可持续农业做法得到维持并增强。研究显示,土壤有机物质和含氮水平,在有机土地中比常规土地高一些。
Biologicalactivityhasalsobeenfoundtobehigherinorganicsoils.Therearemoreearthworms,arthropods,mycorrhizalandotherfungi,andmicro-organisms,allofwhicharebeneficialfornutrientrecyclingandsuppressionofdisease.还发现有机土壤中的生物活动也更活跃。这些土壤中有更多的蚯蚓、节肢动物、根菌及其它真菌及微生物,所有这些对营养循环和压制疾病都有利。
3.Cleanerenvironment3.更清洁的环境Thereislittleornopollutingchemical-inputwithsustainableagriculture.Moreover,researchsuggeststhatlessnitrateandphosphorusareleachedtogroundwaterfromorganicsoils.可持续农业使用的污染性化学品很少或几乎没有。此外,研究显示,有机土壤过滤到地下水中的硝酸盐和磷化物更少。
Betterwaterinfiltrationratesarefoundinorganicsystems.Therefore,theyarelesspronetoerosionandlesslikelytocontributetowaterpollutionfromsurfacerunoff.有机系统中,水渗透率也更好。因此,侵蚀的倾向也更小,表面携带的物质对水体的污染也较少。
4.Reducedpesticidesandnoincreaseinpests4.杀虫剂减少,害虫并未增加Organicfarmingprohibitsroutinepesticideapplication.IntegratedpestmanagementhascutthenumberofpesticidespraysinVietnamfrom3.4tooneperseason,inSriLankafrom2.9to0.5perseason,andinIndonesiafrom2.9to1.1perseason.有机耕作禁止日常使用杀虫剂。在越南,集成虫害管理使杀虫剂喷剂的使用次数从每季3.4降至1,斯里兰卡每季从2.9降至0.5,而印尼每季则从2.9降至1.1。
Researchshowednoincreaseincroplossesduetopestdamage,despitethewithdrawalofsyntheticinsecticidesinCaliforniantomatoproduction.研究显示,加州西红柿生产尽管撤销了合成杀虫剂,但作物因害虫损害而造成的损失并未增加。
Pestcontrolisachievablewithoutpesticides,reversingcroplosses,asforexample,byusing‘trapcrops’toattractstemborer,amajorpestinEastAfrica.Otherbenefitsofavoidingpesticidesarisefromutilisingthecomplexinter-relationshipsbetweenspeciesinanecosystem.在不使用杀虫剂的情况下仍使害虫得到控制,比如,用“诱虫作物”来吸引东亚的一种主要害虫-三化螟虫,从而使作物损失减少。使用生态系统中各种生物之间复杂的内部关系也可避免使用杀虫剂,带来其他一些好处。
5.Supportingbiodiversityandusingdiversity5.支持生物多样性,利用多样性Sustainableagriculturepromotesagriculturalbiodiversity,whichiscrucialforfoodsecurityandrurallivelihoods.Organicfarmingcanalsosupportmuchgreaterbiodiversity,benefitingspeciesthathavesignificantlydeclined.可持续农业促进了农业的生物多样性,这对粮食安全和农村生计来说至关重要。有机耕作还可支持更高的生物多样性,使急剧减少的种类受益。Biodiversesystemsaremoreproductivethanmonocultures.IntegratedfarmingsystemsinCubaare1.45to2.82timesmoreproductivethanmonocultures.ThousandsofChinesericefarmershavedoubledyieldsandnearlyeliminatedthemostdevastatingdiseasesimplybymixedplantingoftwovarieties.生物多样化的系统比单一栽培系统的生产力高。古巴的集成耕作系统比单一栽培系统的产量高1.45-2.82倍。中国成千上万的稻米农民仅仅通过将两种作物套种就使产量翻倍,并消除了最具毁灭性的疾病。
Soilbiodiversityisenhancedbyorganicpractices,bringingbeneficialeffectssuchasrecoveryandrehabilitationofdegradedsoils,improvedsoilstructureandwaterinfiltration.通过有机做法,土地的生物多样也提高,带来很多好处,如退化土地得到恢复与康复、土地结构、水渗透状况改善等。
6.Environmentallyandeconomicallysustainable6.环境和经济的可持续性
Researchonappleproductionsystemsrankedtheorganicsystemfirstinenvironmentalandeconomicsustainability,theintegratedsystemsecondandtheconventionalsystemlast.Organicapplesweremostprofitableduetopricepremiums,quickerinvestmentreturnandfastrecoveryofcosts.对苹果生产系统的研究发现,有机系统在环境和经济可持续性中排列第一,集成系统排第二,而常规系统排第三。鉴于溢价、投资回报快及成本快速回笼等因素,有机苹果是最赚钱的。
7.Amelioratingclimatechangebyreducingdirectandindirectenergyuse7.减少直接和间接能量使用从而改善气候变化
Organicagricultureusesenergymuchmoreefficientlyandgreatlyreducescarbondioxide(CO2)emissionscomparedwithconventionalagriculture,bothwithrespecttodirectenergyconsumptioninfuelandoilandindirectconsumptioninsyntheticfertilisersandpesticides.与常规农业相比,有机农业使用的能量更有效,大幅减少了二氧化碳的释放,不仅仅是直接燃油能量消耗减少,而且合成肥料和杀虫剂的间接能量消耗也减少。Sustainableagriculturerestoressoilorganicmattercontent,increasingcarbonsequestrationbelowground,therebyrecoveringanimportantcarbonsink.Organicsystemshaveshownsignificantabilitytoabsorbandretaincarbon,raisingthepossibilitythatsustainableagriculturepracticescanhelpreducetheimpactofglobalwarming.可持续农业恢复了土地的有机物含量,增加了地下的碳封存,因此使重要的碳阱得到恢复。有机系统已经显示了吸收和保持碳的强烈能力,提高了可持续农业帮助减少全球升温影响的可能性。
Organicagricultureislikelytoemitlessnitrousoxide(N2O),anotherimportantgreenhousegasandalsoacauseofstratosphericozonedepletion.有机农业可能排出较少的一氧化氮。这是另一种重要的温室气体,也是平流层臭氧耗竭的原因之一。
8.Efficientandprofitableproduction8.有效、有利的生产Anyyieldreductioninorganicagricultureismorethanoffsetbyecologicalandefficiencygains.Researchhasshownthattheorganicapproachcanbecommerciallyviableinthelong-term,producingmorefoodperunitofenergyorresources.
有机农业任何产量的减少常常被生态和有效性方面的收获而抵消。研究显示,有机方法长期来说在商业上经得住考验,每个单位能量和资源可以生产更多的食品。
Datashowthatsmallerfarmsproducefarmoreperunitareathanthelargerfarmscharacteristicofconventionalfarming.Thoughtheyieldperunitareaofonecropmaybeloweronasmallfarmthanonalargemonoculture,thetotaloutputperunitarea,oftencomposedofoveradozencropsandvariousanimalproducts,canbefarhigher.数据显示,较小的农户每个单位区域的产量比常规耕作的大农户的产量高出很多。虽然小农户一种作物每个单位区域的产量可能比单一栽培大农户的产量低一些,但是每个单位的总体产量常常由12种以上的作物和各种动物产品组成,因此总体产量会更高。
Productioncostsfororganicfarmingareoftenlowerthanforconventionalfarming,bringingequivalentorhighernetreturnsevenwithoutorganicpricepremiums.Whenpricepremiumsarefactoredin,organicsystemsarealmostalwaysmoreprofitable.有机耕作的生产成本常常比常规耕作低,即使有机价格没有产生溢价,经济回报也相当或更高。如果价格产生溢价,有机系统几乎总是能更赚钱。
9.Improvedfoodsecurityandbenefitstolocalcommunities9.粮食安全改善,本地社区受益Areviewofsustainableagricultureprojectsindevelopingcountriesshowedthataveragefoodproductionperhouseholdincreasedby1.71tonnesperyear(up73%)for4.42millionfarmerson3.58millionhectares,bringingfoodsecurityandhealthbenefits.对发展中国家可持续农业发展的回顾显示,442万农民种植的358万公顷土地上每户家庭平均粮食产量每年增加了1.71吨(约73%),带来了粮食安全和健康利益。Increasingagriculturalproductivityhasbeenshowntoalsoincreasefoodsuppliesandraiseincomes,therebyreducingpoverty,increasingaccesstofood,reducingmalnutritionandimprovinghealthandlivelihoods.不断增长的农业生产力还显示可以增加粮食供应,提高收入,从而减少贫困,增加食物的供应,减少营养不良,改善健康和生活。
Sustainableagriculturalapproachesdrawextensivelyontraditionalandindigenousknowledge,andplaceemphasisonthefarmers'experienceandinnovation.Thistherebyutilisesappropriate,low-costandreadilyavailablelocalresourcesaswellasimprovesfarmers'statusandautonomy,enhancingsocialandculturalrelationswithinlocalcommunities.可持续农业方法广泛利用了传统和本地知识,把重点放在农民的经验和创新上,从而可以利用适当、可用且成本较低的本地资源,还可改善农民的地位和自主权,提高本地社区的社会和文化关系。
Localmeansofsaleanddistributioncangeneratemoremoneyforthelocaleconomy.Forevery£1spentatanorganicboxschemefromCusgarneOrganics(UK),£2.59isgeneratedforthelocaleconomy;butforevery£1spentatasupermarket,only£1.40isgeneratedforthelocaleconomy.本地销售和分销的方法可以为本地经济带来更多的收入。英国CusgarneOrganics组织的有机盒计划每消费1英镑就可被本地经济带来2.59英镑的收入;而在超市每花费1英镑却仅仅只能给本地经济带来1.4英镑的收入。
10.Betterfoodqualityforhealth10.食品质量更高,有益健康
Organicfoodissafer,asorganicfarmingprohibitsroutinepesticideandherbicideuse,soharmfulchemicalresiduesarerarelyfound.有机食品更安全,因为有机耕作禁止使用杀虫剂和除草剂,因此很少能发现有害化学品残留物。
Organicproductionalsobanstheuseofartificialfoodadditivessuchashydrogenatedfats,phosphoricacid,aspartameandmonosodiumglutamate,whichhavebeenlinkedtohealthproblemsasdiverseasheartdisease,osteoporosis,migrainesandhyperactivity.有机生产还禁止使用人工食品添加剂,如硬化油脂、磷酸和谷胺酸钠等,而这些成分与多种健康问题,如心脏疾病,骨质疏松症、偏头痛和机能亢进等有联系。Studieshaveshownthat,onaverage,organicfoodhashighervitaminC,higherminerallevelsandhigherplantphenolics-plantcompoundsthatcanfightcancerandheartdisease,andcombatage-relatedneurologicaldysfunctions-andsignificantlylessnitrates,atoxiccompound.研究显示,平均来说,有机食品含有的维生素C、矿物质及植物酚(可以对抗癌症和心脏疾病,对抗与年龄有关的神经机能障碍的植物成分)含量较高。
GMcropsareneitherneedednorwanted既不需要也不想要转基因农作物
Thereisnolongeranydoubtthatgeneticallymodified(GM)cropsarenotneededtofeedtheworld,andthathungeriscausedbypovertyandinequality,andnotbyinadequateproductionoffood.AccordingtoestimatesbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),thereisenoughfoodproducedtofeedeveryoneusingonlyconventionalcrops,andthatwillremainthecaseforatleast25yearsandprobablyfarintothefuture[2].世界既不需要也不想要转基因农作物,饥饿是因为贫穷和不公平而非粮食不足造成的,这已经没有任何疑问。根据联合国粮农组织(FAO)的预测,仅仅使用常规的农作物,生产的粮食已经足够喂饱世界上的每个人,而且这种情况至少将维持25年,并可能延伸到未来。〔2〕
Citizens’juriesandotherparticipatorydemocracyandsocialinclusionprocesseshavebeenusedinIndia,ZimbabweandBrazil,toallowsmallfarmersandmarginalisedruralcommunitiestoassesstherisksanddesirabilityofGMcrops,ontheirowntermsandaccordingtotheirowncriteriaandnotionsofwell-being.印度、赞比亚和巴西采用了公民陪审团及其它民主及社会参与进程来允许小农和边缘化的农村社区对转基因农作物的风险和渴望度用他们自己的术语,根据自己的标准和对健康的概念来进行评估。
Theresultsshowthatwhenandwheretheseeventshavebeenfacilitatedinatrustworthy,credibleandunbiasedmanner,smallfarmersandindigenouspeopleshaverejectedGMcropsonthegroundsthattheydonotneedthem,andthattheGMtechnologyisunprovenanddoesnotmeettheirneeds[7,8].结果显示,这些以可信、可靠和毫无偏见的方式进行的活动中,小农和本地居民都对转基因农作物表示拒绝,原因是他们不需要这些东西,转基因技术并没有得到证明,不能满足他们的需要〔7、8〕等。
Theagriculturalsectorledthedramaticdeclineofthebiotechindustry,beforetheindustrypeakedin2000onthebackofthehumangenomeproject.TheInstituteofScienceinSociety(ISIS)hassummarisedtheevidenceinaspecialbriefingtotheUKPrimeMinister’sStrategyUnitonGM,submittedinresponsetoitspublicconsultationontheeconomicpotentialofGMcrops[9].Thingshavegotworsesincefortheentireindustry[10].2000年紧跟着人类基因组计划,生物技术产业达到了顶峰,但是之前农业却导致生物技术产业的急剧下降。社会科学院(ISIS)应公众就转基因农作物的经济前景进行询问而向英国总理转基因战略部提交的一份特殊简报中总结了一些证据。对于整个产业来说,事情已经变糟〔10〕。
AreportreleasedinApril2003byInnovestStrategicValueAdvisors[11]gaveMonsantothelowestpossibleratingwiththemessagethatagriculturalbiotechnologyisahigh-riskindustrynotworthinvestingin,unlessitchangesitsfocusawayfromGE(geneticengineering,synonymouswithGM).Thereportstates,
“MoneyflowingfromGEcompaniestopoliticiansaswellasthefrequencywithwhichGEcompanyemployeestakejobswithUSregulatoryagencies(andviceversa)createslargebiaspotentialandreducestheabilityofinvestorstorelyonsafetyclaimsmadebytheUSGovernment.ItalsohelpstoclarifywhytheUSGovernmenthasnottakenaprecautionaryapproachtoGEandcontinuestosuppressGElabellinginthefaceofoverwhelmingpublicsupportforit.WithEnronandotherfinancialdisasters,thefinancialcommunityapparentlyboughtintocompanystorieswithoutlookingmuchbelowthesurface.....”
2003年4月由Innovest投资策略价值顾问公司发布的一份报告将Monsanto公司排在了最低的位置,并指出农业生物技术是一个高度风险的产业,不值得投资,除非该产业将注意力从转基因转移。报告陈述说,“从转基因公司流到政客的钱,以及转基因公司雇员频繁为美国管理机构做事带来的很大偏见,减少了投资者对美国政府所宣称之安全性的信任。这也帮助解释了为什么美国政府对转基因没有采用预防的方法,继续压制大多数公众所支持之给转基因识标的提议。随着着安隆(Enron)和其他财务灾难的出现,金融社会只看公司的表面,却没有看看表面下面是什幺……”“Monsantocouldbeanotherdisasterwaitingtohappenforinvestors”,thereportconcludes.“Monsanto可能是投资者的另一个灾难,”报告总结说。
GMcropsfailedtodeliverthebenefits转基因农作物未能带来好处
GMcropshavesimplynotdeliveredthepromisedbenefits.Thatistheconsistentfindingofindependentresearchandon-farmsurveys,reviewedbyagronomistCharlesBenbrookintheUSsince1999[12,13]andotherstudieshavebornethisout[14].转基因农作物并未带来许诺的好处。这与自1999年美国农学家查尔斯·本布鲁克〔12、13〕及其它研究机构〔14〕不断进行的独立研究和现场农业调查发现一致。
ThousandsofcontrolledtrialsofGMsoyagavesignificantlydecreasedyieldsofbetween5to10%,andinsomelocations,even12to20%comparedwithnon-GMsoya.SimilarreductionsinyieldhavebeenreportedinBritainforGMwinteroilseedrape(canola)andsugarbeetinfieldtrials.转基因大豆上千个试验显示产量比非转基因大豆大幅下降5-10%,而在一些地区甚至达12-20%。在英国也有类似转基因冬油籽菜和糖用甜菜实地试种产量下降的试验报告。
GMcropshavenotresultedinsignificantreductionsinherbicideandinsecticide/pesticideuse.RoundupReady(RR)soyarequired2to5timesmoreherbicide(measuredinpoundsappliedperacre)thanotherweedmanagementsystems.Similarly,USDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)datasuggestthatin2000,theaverageacreofRRmaizewastreatedwith30%moreherbicidethantheaverageacreofnon-GMmaize.转基因农作物并没有使除草剂和杀虫剂的使用大幅减少。基因改造RoundupReady(RR)大豆需要的除草剂比其他除草管理系统多2-5倍(以每英亩使用的磅数计算)。类似还有美国农业部(USDA)的资料显示,2000年RR玉米平均每英亩使用的除草剂比非转基因玉米平均每英亩多30%。
AnalysisoffouryearsofofficialUSDAdataoninsecticideuseshowsaprettyclearpicture[13].WhileBtcottonhasreducedinsecticideuseinseveralstates,Btcorn(maize)hashadlittle,ifany,impactsoncorninsecticideuse.USDAdatashowthatcorninsecticideapplicationsdirectlytargetingtheEuropeancornborerincreasedfromabout4%ofacrestreatedin1995toabout5%in2000.美国农业部就杀虫剂进行的为期4年的官方资料分析描述了一幅十分清晰的画面〔13〕。虽然几个州的Bt棉已经减少了杀虫剂的使用,但是Bt玉米却几乎没有对玉米杀虫剂的使用带来影响。美国农业部的资料显示,直接针对欧洲玉米螟的玉米杀虫剂的运用从1995年的4%增加到2000年的5%。
ThegreatercostofGMseeds,theincreasedherbicide/pesticideuse,yielddrag,royaltiesonseedandreducedmarkets,alladduptolostincomeforfarmers.Thefirstfarm-leveleconomicanalysisofBtmaizeintheUSrevealedthatbetween1996and2001,thenetlosstofarmerswas$92millionorabout$1.31peracre.转基因种子的较高成本、不断增加的除草剂/杀虫剂的使用、产量阻滞、种子专利费、市场减少等都使农民收入遭受损失。美国就Bt棉的第一手农业经济分析揭示,1996-2001年之间,农民的净损失为9200万美元,即每英亩1.31美元。
AUKSoilAssociationreport[15]releasedinSeptember2002,estimatedthatGMcropshavecosttheUnitedStates$12billioninfarmsubsidies,lostsalesandproductrecallsduetotransgeniccontamination.Itsummedupasfollows:
“Theevidencewesetoutsuggeststhat….virtuallyeverybenefitclaimedforGMcropshasnotoccurred.Instead,farmersarereportingloweryields,continuingdependencyonherbicidesandpesticides,lossofaccesstomarketsand,critically,reducedprofitabilityleavingfoodproductionevenmorevulnerabletotheinterestsofthebiotechnologycompaniesandinneedofsubsidies.”英国土壤协会2002年9月发布的一分报告估计,转基因农作物已经使美国在农业补贴方面花费了约120亿美元,并因转基因污染使销售减少,产品被召回。该报告总结如下:“我们展示的证据显示……事实上转基因农作物所声称的各种好处都没有出现。相反,据报告农民的产量降低,继续依靠除草剂和农药,市场准入损失,而最重要的是,利润的减少使粮食生产更为生物技术公司的利益服务,更需要补贴。”
Thesestudieshavenottakenintoaccountcropfailureselsewhereintheworld,themostseriousinIndialastyear[16].MassivefailuresofGMcotton,upto100%,werereportedinseveralIndianstates,includingfailuretogerminate,root-rotandattacksbytheAmericanbollworm,forwhichtheBt-cottonwassupposedtoberesistant.此类研究还未考虑世界其他地区的农作物失败情况,最糟糕的是去年在印度的情况〔16〕。据报告,印度几个州大量的转基因棉,几乎是100%都失败了,包括发芽、根腐烂、美国螟蛉的袭击等,后一项本来预计Bt棉可以抵抗。
TwoEscalatingProblemsontheFarm二、农业问题升级
Transgenicinstability转基因的不稳定性
ThemassivefailuresofGMcottoninIndia,andofotherGMcropselsewherearemostlikelyduetothefactthatGMcropsareoverwhelminglyunstable,aproblemfirsthighlightedina1994reviewbyFinneganandMcElroy[17]:印度转基因棉及其它地区转基因棉大量失败最大的可能是因为转基因农作物十分不稳定,这个问题首先由芬尼根和迈克尔罗伊在1994年时注意到〔17〕:
“Whiletherearesomeexamplesofplantswhichshowstableexpressionofatransgenethesemayprovetobetheexceptionstotherule.Inaninformalsurveyofover30companiesinvolvedinthecommercialisationoftransgeniccropplants….almostalloftherespondentsindicatedthattheyhadobservedsomeleveloftransgeneinaction.Manyrespondentsindicatedthatmostcasesoftransgeneinactivationneverreachtheliterature.”“虽然一些植物的转基因表达显示稳定,但这可能会被证明是规则的例外情况。在对30家从事转基因农作物商业化之公司进行的一项非正式调查中发现……几乎所有的回答者都指出,他们曾观察到了某种程度上的转基因失活。很多回答者表示,大多数转基因失活从来没有在书面上表示出来。”
Therearetwomajorcausesoftransgenicinstability.Thefirsthastodowiththedefencemechanismsprotectingtheintegrityoftheorganismthat‘silence’orinactivateforeigngenesintegratedintothegenome,sothattheyarenolongerexpressed.Genesilencingwasfirstdiscoveredinconnectionwithintegratedtransgenesintheearly1990s,andisnowknowntobepartoftheorganism'sdefenceagainstviralinfections.转基因不稳定有两个主要原因。第一个与使加入到基因组的外部基因‘沉默’或不活跃,以便其不会再表达的保护生物体完整性的防卫机制有关。基因沉默在90年代早期加入转基因时首先发现,现已成为生物防卫细菌感染的一部分。
Investigationsalsoshowthattransgeneinstabilitymayariseinlatergenerations,andarenotnecessarily‘selectedout’duringearlygenerationsofgrowth.ThiscanresultinpoorandinconsistentperformancesoftheGMcropsinthefield,aproblemlikelytobeunder-reportedbyfarmerswhosettleforcompensationwithagaggingclause.调查还显示,转基因不稳定性可能在其后代中出现,在生长的早期代产品中并没有进行必要的‘筛选’。这也可能导致转基因农作物在田地中性能差、不一致,而这个问题可能并没有被那些根据矫正条款(gaggingclause)申请赔偿的农民报告。
StopPress停止发布
Integrationsitesareworsethanrandom.ThereisevidencethattransgeneDNAoftengetsintogene-richregionsandregionspronetodoublestrandedbreaks.Theformerincreasesthepotentialofactivating/inactivatinggenes,andthelatterincreasesthestructuralinstabilityoftransgenesandtransgeniclines.加入位点比随机更糟糕。有证据显示,转基因DNA常常进入富含基因的地方和易于双链断裂的地方。前者增加了启动/去活基因的可能性,而后者则增加了转基因和转基因品系结构的不稳定性。Volunteersandweeds自生植物与杂草
Tripleherbicide-tolerantoilseedrapevolunteerswerefirstdiscoveredinAlberta,Canadain1998,justtwoyearsaftersingleherbicide-tolerantGMcropswereplanted[22].Ayearlater,thesemultipleherbicidetolerantvolunteerswerefoundin11otherfields[23].TheUSonlystartedgrowingherbicide-tolerantGMoilseedrapein2001.ResearchinIdahoUniversityreportedthatsimilarmultiplegene-stackinghadoccurredinexperimentalplotsovertwoyears,andduringthesameperiod,weedswithtwoherbicidetoleranttraitswerealsofound.1998年,三价耐除草剂油菜自生植物在单价耐除草剂转基因作物种植后的两年首先在加拿大阿尔伯达省发现〔22〕。一年后,这些多价耐除草剂自生植物在其他11块土地中也被发现〔23〕。美国从2001年才开始种植耐除草剂转基因油菜。爱达荷州大学的研究报告,两年内试验地中已经出现了类似的多价基因堆叠,同时,还发现两种具有耐除草剂特点的杂草。
Btcropsarealsoexperiencingproblemswithresistanceverylikelytodevelopintargetpests(seebelow).AnewpatentapplicationfromMonsantoisbasedonusingtwoinsecticideswiththeirBtcrops,ongroundsthatBt-cropscouldproduceresistantstrainsofinsectpestsand“numerousproblemsremain...underactualfieldconditions”.Bt棉也经历了非常相似的抵抗目标害虫的问题(参看下文)。Monsanto公司运用的一个新专利是对其Bt棉使用两种杀虫剂,因为Bt棉对虫害可产生抗性株,且“实际现场条件下……仍有很多问题。”
Extensivetransgeniccontamination广泛的转基因污染InNovember2001,BerkeleyplantgeneticistsIgnacioChapelaandDavidQuistpublishedareportinNature[28]presentingevidencethatmaizelandraces,growinginremoteregionsinMexico,werecontaminatedwithtransgenes,despitethefactthatanofficialmoratoriumongrowingGMmaizehasbeenimposedinthecountry.2001年11月植物遗传学家伊格纳西奥·查佩拉和大卫·奎斯特在?自然?〔28〕上发表了一篇报道,提出一些证据,指出尽管自1998年以来官方已经暂禁种植,但墨西哥偏远地区种植的玉米地方品种还是广泛被转基因污染。
Transgeniccontaminationisnotlimitedtocross-pollination.Newresearchshowsthattransgenicpollen,wind-blownanddepositedelsewhere,orthathasfallendirectlytotheground,isamajorsourceoftransgeniccontamination[34].SuchtransgenicDNAwasevenfoundinfieldswhereGMcropshaveneverbeengrown,andsoilsamplescontaminatedwithpollenwasdemonstratedtotransfertransgenicDNAtosoilbacteria(seelater).转基因污染不仅仅限于异花授粉。新的研究显示,转基因花粉被风传到其他地方并沉积,或者直接落到地面上是转基因污染的一个重大源泉〔34〕。这种转基因DNA甚至可以在从来没有种植过转基因农作物的土壤中发现,被花粉污染的土壤样本显示,转基因DNA已转移到土壤细菌中(参看后文)。
WhyiscontaminationsuchabigissueTheimmediateansweristhatconsumersarenotacceptingit.Themoreimportantreasonisthereareoutstandingsafetyconcerns.为什么污染是一个如此大的问题呢?一个直接的答案是,消费者不能接受。更重要的原因是,安全隐患越来越突出。Part2:GMCropsNotSafe第二部分:转基因农作物不安全
ThreeScience&Precaution三、科学与预防原则
Precaution,commonsense&science预防原则、常识与科学WearetoldthereisnoscientificevidencethatGMisharmful.ButisitsafeThatisthequestionweshouldask.Wheresomethingcancauseseriousirreversibleharm,itisrightandproperforscientiststodemandevidencedemonstratingthatGMissafebeyondreasonabledoubt.Thatisusuallydignifiedas'theprecautionaryprinciple’,butforscientistsandforthepublic,itisjustcommonsense[35-37].我们被告知没有科学证据显示转基因有害。但是,它安全吗?这是我们应该询问的问题。由于一些事情可能导致不可挽回的严重危害,因此科学家在合理怀疑之外,要求有证据显示转基因安全也是正确和适当的。而这通常被夸大为“预防原则”,但是对科学家和公众来说,这只是一个常识〔35-37〕。
.Failingtoassumeresponsibilityfor,ortoaddressmajoraspectsoffoodsafety,suchastheuseoffoodcropsforproducingpharmaceuticalsandindustrialchemicals,aswellasissuesoflabellingandmonitoring..未能承担粮食安全的主要责任,或解决粮食安全的重大问题,如利用粮食作物生产药物和工业化学品及识标和监管的问题
.Restrictingthescopeofsafetyconsiderationstoexcludeknownhazards,suchasthetoxicityofbroad-spectrumherbicides..限制安全考虑的范围,将已知危害,如广谱除草剂的毒性等排除在外
.Claimingerroneouslythatgeneticengineeringdoesnotdifferfromconventionalbreeding..错误地声称基因工程与常规育种没有差别
.Usinga'principleofsubstantialequivalence'forriskassessmentthatisbotharbitraryandunscientific.使用“实质等同原则”进行具争论性和不科学的风险评估.Failingtoaddresslong-termimpactsonhealthandfoodsecurity.未能解决长期的健康和粮食安全影响
.Ignoringexistingscientificfindingsonidentifiablehazards,especiallythoseresultingfromthehorizontaltransferandrecombinationoftransgenicDNA.忽视了科学发现已经认识到的危害,尤其是因转基因DNA横向转移和重组带来的危害。
Allthatmakesforananti-precautionary‘safetyassessment’designedtoexpediteproductapprovalattheexpenseofsafetyconsiderations.所有这些都是违反预防原则的“安全评估”以安全考虑为代价,加速产品评估进程。
Theprincipleof‘substantialequivalence’isashamintermsofriskassessment“实质等同”原则是风险评估的一个幌子
Thebiggestfaultsareintheprincipleof‘substantialequivalence’thatissupposedtoserveasthebackboneofriskassessment.TheReportstated,“Substantialequivalenceembodiestheconceptthatifanewfoodorfoodcomponentisfoundtobesubstantiallyequivalenttoanexistingfoodorfoodcomponent,itcanbetreatedinthesamemannerwithrespecttosafety(i.e.,thefoodorfoodcomponentcanbeconcludedtobeassafeastheconventionalfoodorfoodcomponent).”最大的缺陷是作为风险评估骨架的“实质等同”原则。报告陈述说,“实质等同表达的是这样一个概念:如果发现新食品或食品成分与现存食品或食品成分实质等同,则在安全性方面可将其以相同的方式对待(即,可以得出食品或食品成分与常规食品或食品成分一样安全的结论)。”Ascanbeseen,theprincipleisvagueandilldefined.Butwhatfollowsmakesclearthatitisintendedtobeasflexible,malleableandopentointerpretationaspossible.正如可以看到的一样,该原则含糊不清,且定义松散。但是,接下来的规定则清楚表明,该原则就是为了使解释尽可能灵活、有延展性和开放。
Inpractice,theprincipleofSEhasallowedthecompaniesto,在操作中,实质等同原则允许公司:.Dotheleastdiscriminatingtestssuchascrudecompositionsofproteins,carbohydratesandfats,aminoacids,selectedmetabolites..进行最少的辨别测试,如蛋白质、糖类和脂肪、氨基酸及选定之代谢物的天然成分。
.Avoiddetailedmolecularcharacterizationofthetransgenicinserttoestablishgeneticstability,geneexpressionprofiles,metabolicprofiles,etc.,thatwouldhaverevealedunintendedeffects..避免详细描述转基因插入物的分子特性,以确定基因的稳定性、基因的表达图谱(geneexpressionprofie)、代谢图谱等,而这些可能揭示一些非意图性的作用。.Claimthatthetransgeniclineissubstantiallyequivalenttothenon-transgeniclineexceptforthetransgeneproduct,andtocarryoutriskassessmentsolelyonthetransgeneproduct,thereby,again,ignoringanyandallunintendedchanges.声称除基因产品外,转基因品系与其他与非转基因品系实质等同,因此只对转基因产品进行风险评估,从而再次忽略了所有非意图性的变化。
.Avoidcomparingthetransgeniclinetoitsnon-transgenic‘parent’grownunderthesamerangeofenvironmentalconditions.避免将转基因品系与在同等环境下生长的非转基因品系“亲体”进行比较。
.Comparethetransgeniclinetoanyvarietywithinthespecies,andeventoanabstractentitymadeupofthecompositeofselectedcharacteristicsfromallvarietieswithinthespecies,sothatthetransgeniclinecouldhavetheworstfeaturesofeveryvarietyandstillbeconsideredSE.将转基因品系与物种范围内的任何一种进行比较,甚至是与由物种范围内所有品种选择特性复合制造出的抽象实体进行比较,因此,即便转基因品系有各品种最糟糕的特点也仍然被认为是实质等同。.Comparedifferentcomponentsofatransgeniclinewithdifferentspecies,asinthecaseofatransgeniccanolaengineeredtoproducelauricacid.But“otherfattyacidscomponentsareGenerallyRecognizedasSafe(GRAS)whenevaluatedindividuallybecausetheyarepresentatsimilarlevelsinothercommonlyconsumedoils.”将转基因品系的不同成分与不同的物种进行比较,正如转基因油菜被改造产生月桂酸的情况一样。然而“单独评估时,其他脂肪酸成分‘公认为安全’(GRAS),因为它们与其他正常消耗的油类表现出类似的水平。”
Paucityofpublisheddata公布之数据极少
BttoxinsBt毒素ThemostobviousquestiononsafetyiswithregardtothetransgeneanditsproductintroducedintoGMcrops,astheyarenewtotheecosystemandtothefoodchainofanimalsandhumanbeings.最显着的安全性问题是关于引入基因改造作物中的转基因及其产品,因为这些东西目前对生态系统和动物及人类的食物链来说是全新的。
‘Pharm’crops“药物”农作物
Theglycoproteingenegp120oftheAIDSvirusHIV-1,incorporatedintoGMmaizeasa‘cheap,edibleoralvaccine’,isyetanotherbiologicaltime-bomb.Thereisalotofevidencethatthisgenecaninterferewiththeimmunesystem,asithashomologytotheantigen-bindingvariableregionsoftheimmunoglobulins,andhasrecombinationsitessimilartothoseoftheimmunoglobulins.Furthermore,theserecombinationsitesarealsosimilartotherecombinationsitespresentinmanyvirusesandbacteria,withwhichthegp120canrecombinetogeneratedeadlypathogens[65-68].AIDS病毒HIV-1的糖蛋白基因gp120也以“廉价、可食用的口服疫苗”为名加入转基因玉米中,成为另一个生物计时炸弹。有很多证据显示,该基因由于与免疫球蛋白抗原结合可变区同源,且有与免疫球蛋白类似的重组位点,因此可以干扰免疫系统。此外,这些重组位点还可能与当前很多细菌和病菌的重组位点类似,而在这些位点中gp120可重组,产生出致命病原体。BacterialandviralDNA细菌与病毒DNA
Ahithertoneglectedsourceofhazard-inGMcrops,thoughnotingenetherapywhereitisrecognizedassomethingtoavoid-istheDNAfrombacteriaandtheirviruses,whichhaveahighfrequencyoftheCpGdinucleotide[24].TheseCpGmotifsareimmunogenicandcancauseinflammation,septicarthritisandpromotionofBcelllymphomaandautoimmunedisease[69-73].YetmanygenesintroducedintoGMOsarefrombacteriaandtheirviruses,andtheseposeotherrisksaswell(seebelow).这里还有一个被忽视的危害源(虽然是在转基因农作物中,不是在被认为应避免的基因疗法中),即出现CpG二核启酸频率很高之细菌及其病毒的DNA〔24〕。这些CpG基序(motif)可产生免疫性,导致发炎、脓毒性关节炎,并促进杆菌细胞淋巴瘤和自体免疫疾病的产生〔69-73〕。而很多引入转基因生物中的基因都是来自细菌和病毒,因此也带来其他风险(参看下文)。SixTerminatorCropsSpreadMaleSterility六、终结者农作物使雄性不育蔓延
‘Suicide’genesforsterility不育“自杀”基因Intheinterestofavoidingtedioussemanticarguments,‘terminatorcrops’hererefertoanytransgeniccropengineeredwitha‘suicide’geneformale,femaleorseedsterility,forthepurposeofpreventingfarmersfromsavingandreplantingseeds,orprotectingpatentedtraits.为了避免乏味的语义争论,此处的“终结者农作物”(terminatorcrops)是指任何使用致使雄性、雌性不育或种子不结果的“自杀”基因而改造的转基因农作物,其目的是为了防止农户储存和重新种植此类种子,或者是为了保护专利特点。
ThemalesterilitysystemintheseGMoilseedrapesconsistsofthreelines.这些转基因油菜的雄性不育系统含有三个植株。
Herbicideprofits除草剂带来的利润
Thelossofinsectsandplantswouldhaveknock-oneffectsonbirdsandsmallanimallife.昆虫和植物数量的减少对鸟类和小动物的生命有重大影响。
TheothermajorherbicideusedinconjunctionwithGMcrops,glyphosate,isnobetter[76].另一种配合转基因农作物的主要除草剂-草甘膦也好不到哪里去[76]。
EightHorizontalGeneTransfer八、基因横向转移
Horizontalgenetransfer&epidemics基因横向转移与流行病
‘Recombinationhotspot’“重组热区”
Sometransgenicconstructsarelessstablethanothers,suchasthosecontainingthecauliflowermosaicvirus(CaMV)35Spromoter.一些基因构造比其他一些较为不稳定,如含有花椰菜花叶病毒(CaMV)35S启动子的基因。
EvidencethattransgenicDNAisdifferent证据显示转基因DNA是不同的
ExperimentsdemonstratinghorizontaltransferoftransgenicDNA实验论证了转基因DNA的横向转移
Thispaperwassubsequentlywidelycitedasshowingthathorizontalgenetransferdoesnothappen.这篇论文随后被广泛引用来说明没有出现横向基因转移
Fieldexperimentprovidesprimafacieevidence现场试验提供了初步证据
TwelveHazardsofHorizontalGeneTransfer十二、基因横向转移的危害
Asummary总结
Asisclearfromthepastchapters,thehazardsthatcouldarisefromthehorizontaltransferoftransgenicDNAareuniquetogeneticengineering,andaresummarisedinBox2.从前面几章可以清楚看出,转基因DNA横向转移带来的危害是基因工程所独有的,花边文字2对此进行了总结。Box2花边文字2
Potentialhazardsofhorizontalgenetransferfromgeneticengineering基因工程中基因横向转移的潜在危害.Generationofnewcross-speciesvirusesthatcausedisease.激发导致疾病的新跨种病毒
.Generationofnewbacteriathatcausedisease.激发导致疾病的新细菌
.Spreadofdrug-andantibiotic-resistancegenesamongtheviralandbacterialpathogens,makinginfectionsuntreatable.传播病毒和细菌性病原体中具有抵抗抗生素特质的基因,使感染不可治疗
.Randominsertionintogenomesofcells,resultinginharmfuleffectsincludingcancer.随机插入细胞的基因组中,导致包括癌症在内的有害结果
.Reactivationandrecombinationwithdormantviruses(presentinallgenomes)togenerateinfectiousviruses.使休眠病毒(出现在所有基因组中)被重新启动或重组,激发感染性病毒
.Spreadofdangerousnewgenesandgeneconstructsthathaveneverexisted.传播从未存在的危险新基因和基因构造
.Destabilisationofgenomesintowhichtransgeneshavetransferred.转基因转移到的基因组不稳定
.Multiplicationofecologicalimpactsduetoalloftheabove.由于上述原因使生态影响扩大
Experimentsthatappeartohavebeenavoidedsofar到目前为止避免进行的实验
MissingexperimentsonthesafetyofGMfoodandcrops未进行的转基因食品及转基因农作物安全性实验
ThefollowingaresomedefinitiveexperimentsthatwouldinformonthesafetyofGMfoodandcrops.Theyseemtohavebeenintentionallyavoidedsofar.以下是一些通告转基因食品及转基因农作物安全性的决定性实验。但到目前为止似乎都在故意避免进行这些实验。
1.FeedingexperimentssimilartothosecarriedoutbyPusztai’steam,usingwell-characterizedtransgenicsoyaand/ormaizemealfeed,withappropriate,unbiasedmonitoringfortransgenicDNAinthefaeces,bloodandbloodcells,andpost-mortemhistologicalexaminationsthatincludetrackingtransferoftransgenicDNAintothegenomeofcells.Asanaddedcontrol,non-transgenicDNAfromthesameGMfeedsampleshouldalsobemonitored.Inaddition,theroleoftheCaMV35Spromoterinproducingthe‘growthfactor-like’effectsinyoungratsshouldbeinvestigated.1.与普斯陶伊小组类似的饲养实验,应使用特点鲜明的转基因大豆和/或玉米进行饲养,并对排泄物、血液、血液细胞进行适当、无偏见的监控,事后进行组织学检查剖析,包括转基因转移到细胞基因组的追踪。还需进行一项额外的控制,监控来自相同转基因饲养样本的非转基因DNA。此外,CaMV35S启动子在幼鼠中产生“生长因子”效应的作用也应被调查。
2.Feedingtrialsonhumanvolunteersusingwell-characterizedtransgenicsoyaand/ormaizemealfeed,withappropriate,unbiasedmonitoringfortransgenicDNAandhorizontalgenetransferinthemouthandinthefaeces,bloodandbloodcells.Asanaddedcontrol,non-transgenicDNAfromthesameGMfeedsampleshouldalsobemonitored.2.对自愿者的人体进行进食试验,使用特点鲜明的转基因大豆和/或玉米餐喂食,对口中、排泄物、血液及血液细胞中转基因DNA和基因横向转移进行适当、不偏见的监控。还需进行一项额外的控制,监控来自相同转基因饲养样本的非转基因DNA。
3.Investigationonthestabilityoftransgenicplantsinsuccessivegenerationsofgrowth,especiallythosecontainingtheCaMV35Spromoter,usingappropriatequantitativemoleculartechniques.3.调查转基因植物在后续下代植物生长中的稳定性,尤其是含有CaMV35S启动子的转基因植物,使用适当的定量分子技术。4.FullmolecularcharacterisationofalltransgeniclinestoestablishuniformityandgeneticstabilityofthetransgenicDNAinsert(s),andcomparisonwiththeoriginaldatasuppliedbythebiotechcompanytogainapprovalforfieldtrialsorforcommercialrelease.4.所有转基因品系进行完全的分子化性能描述,确定转基因DNA插入的一致性和基因稳定性,并与生物公司所提供之获得现场试验批准或商业释放批准的原始数据进行比较。
5.TestsonalltransgenicplantscreatedbytheAgrobacteriumTDNAvectorsystemforthepersistenceofthebacteriaandthevectors.Thesoilinwhichthetransgenicplantshavebeengrownshouldbemonitoredforgeneescapetosoilbacteria.Thepotentialforhorizontalgenetransfertothenextcropviathegerminatingseedandrootsystemshouldbecarefullymonitored.5.对所有通过土壤杆菌T-DNA带菌者系统留存细菌和带菌者从而获得的转基因植物进行测试。应监控转基因植物生长的土壤中基因转移到土壤细菌的情况。基因通过萌芽种子和根系横向转移到下一代的可能性应仔细监控。
ThirteenConclusiontoParts1&2十三、第一、二部分结论
OurextensivereviewoftheevidencehasconvincedusthatGMcropsareneitherneedednorwanted,thattheyhavefailedtodelivertheirpromises,andinstead,areposingescalatingproblemsonthefarm.ThereisnorealisticpossibilityforGMandnon-GMagriculturetocoexist,asevidentfromthelevelandextentoftransgeniccontaminationthathasalreadyoccurred,eveninacountrylikeMexicowhereanofficialmoratoriumhasbeeninplacesince1998.对各种证据的广泛回顾让我们信服:既不需要也不想要转基因农作物,它们未能带来其许诺的好处,相反,正在使农业问题升级。实际上,转基因农业与非转基因农业没有共存的实际可能性,正如从已经出现的转基因污染的程度和范围所显示的一样,甚至像墨西哥这样自1998年已经官方暂停种植的国家也出现了污染的情况。
Therehasbeenahistoryofmisrepresentationandsuppressionofscientificevidence,especiallyonhorizontalgenetransfer.Keyexperimentsfailedtobeperformed,orwereperformedbadlyandthenmisrepresented.Manyexperimentsfailedtobefollowedup,includinginvestigationsonwhethertheCaMV35Spromoterisresponsibleforthe‘growthfactor-like’effectsobservedinyoungratsfedGMpotatoes.科学证据,尤其是关于基因横向转移的证据也有被歪曲和压制的历史。关键的实验未能进行,或者进行得很糟糕,于是被歪曲。很多实验都未能跟踪,包括CaMV35S启动子是否应对用转基因马铃薯饲养的幼鼠中观察到的“生长因子”负责。
Forallthosereasons,GMcropsshouldbefirmlyrejectedasaviableoptionforthefutureofagriculture.鉴于所有这些原因,应坚决拒绝把转基因农作物作为未来农业可行性的选择。Part3.TheManifoldBenefitsofSustainableAgriculture第三部分:可持续农业的多种好处
FourteenWhySustainableAgriculture十四、为什么要推行可持续农业?
Alternativeagricultureneeded需要另一种农业
.Minimisesnon-renewableinputs(pesticidesandfertilisers)thatdamagetheenvironmentorharmhumanhealth.使致使环境或人体健康受害的非再生投入(杀虫剂和肥料)最小化。
.Reliesontheknowledgeandskillsoffarmers,improvingtheirself-reliance.依靠农民的知识和技巧改善他们自力更生的能力。
.Promotesandprotectssocialcapital-people’scapacitiestoworktogethertosolveproblems.促进和保护社会资本(人民的资本),共同解决问题。
.Dependsonlocally-adaptedpracticestoinnovateinthefaceofuncertainty.面对不稳定,采用本地适用的实践来创新。
.Ismultifunctionalandcontributestopublicgoods,suchascleanwater,wildlife,carbonsequestrationinsoils,floodprotectionandlandscapequality.是多功能的,并对公益,如洁净水、野外生物、土壤中的碳封存、防洪和地貌品质等做贡献。FifteenHigherorComparableProductivity&Yields十五、更高或相当的生产力和产量
Acloserlookat‘yields’深入了解“产量”
Organicagricultureisoftencriticisedforhavingloweryieldscomparedtoconventionalmonoculture.Whilethatmaybethecaseinindustrialisedcountries,suchcomparisonsaremisleadingbecausetheydiscountthecostsofconventionalmonocultureindegradedland,water,biodiversityandotherecologicalservicesonwhichsustainablefoodproductiondepends[133].有机农业常常受到产量比常规单一栽培低的批评。虽然这在工业化国家可能是如此,但是,这种比较是一种误导,因为他们没有计算常规单一栽培的一些成本,如退化的土地、水、生物及其它可持续粮食生产所依赖的生态服务〔133〕。
Andmerelylookingatyieldsforsinglecrops-ascriticsoftendomissesotherindicatorsofsustainabilityandhigheractualproductivityperunitarea,particularlywithagroecologicalsystemsthatoftenhaveadiversemixtureofcrops,treesandanimalstogetherontheland[135](see‘Efficient,ProfitableProduction’).Itisoftenpossibletoobtainthehighestyieldofasinglecropbyplantingitalone-inamonoculture.Butwhileamonoculturemayallowforahighyieldofonecrop,itproducesnothingelseofusetothefarmer[136].仅仅只看单一农作物的产量(正如批评者常常指出的那样)会遗漏其他可持续发展的指标和后者每单位土地事实上更高的生产力,尤其是在农业生态学系统中,常常有多种混合的农作物、树木和动物共存在土地上〔135〕(参考“有效、有利的生产”一节)。单独种植某种单一的农作物(单一栽培)而获得最大产量是可能的。但是,尽管单一栽培可能会使某种单一作物的产量较高,但是却不会给农民带来任何其他可利用的东西〔136〕。
.SoilandwaterconservationinthedrylandsofBurkinaFasohastransformedformerlydegradedlands.Theaveragefamilyhasshiftedfromacerealdeficitof644kgperyear(equivalentto6.5monthsoffoodshortage)toproducinganannualsurplusof153kg.布基纳法索旱地的水土保持已经正式使退化土地发生了转变。平均每户的谷类产量从每年644公斤的赤字(相当于6.5个月的粮食短缺)转为每年153公斤的盈余。
.ThroughtheChehaIntegratedRuralDevelopmentProjectinEthiopia,some12500householdshaveadoptedsustainableagriculture,resultingina60%increaseincropyields.埃塞俄比亚的Cheha农村综合发展计划中有约12,5000户家庭采用了可持续农业,使作物产量增加了60%。
.InBrazil,useofgreenmanuresandcovercropsincreasedmaizeyieldsby20-250%.在巴西,使用绿肥和覆盖作物使玉米产量增加了20-250%。
Plantingthemucunabeanhasimprovedcropyieldsonsteep,easilyerodedhillsideswithdepletedsoilsinHonduras[137].Farmersfirstplantmucuna,whichproducesvigorousgrowththatsuppressesweeds.Whenthebeansarecutdown,maizeisplantedintheresultingmulch.Subsequently,beansandmaizearegrowntogether.Veryquickly,asthesoilimproves,yieldsaredoubled,eventripled(see‘BetterSoils’).Thereason-mucunaproduceslotsoforganicmaterial,creatingrich,friablesoils.Italsoproducesitsownfertiliser,fixingatmosphericnitrogen(N)andstoringitinthegroundforotherplants.在洪都拉斯,种植黎豆改善了陡坡的产量,而陡坡很容易因为土壤贫化而使山坡受到侵蚀〔137〕。农民首先种植黎豆。这种植物有很强的生命力,可压制杂草的生长。当黎豆割下后,在其覆盖地上再种植玉米。之后,黎豆和玉米共同生长。很快,由于土壤改善,产量翻了两倍,甚至三倍(参考“更肥沃的土壤”一节),究其原因是因为黎豆产生了很多有机物质,使土壤更肥沃、更脆。它还产生自己的肥料,固定大气中的氮,将其储存在土地中供其他植物使用。
.Soybeans:Datafromfivestateswith55growingseasonsshowedorganicyieldswere94%ofconventionalyields.大豆:5个州关于55个种植季节的数据显示有机产量是常规产量的94%。.Wheat:Twoinstitutionswith16croppingyearsshowedthatorganicwheatproduced97%oftheconventionalyields.小麦:两个有16年种植经验的机构显示,有机小麦是常规产量的97%。
PlantingmucunabeansinLatinAmericahasrestoredsoilfertilityondepletedsoils[137].Mucunaproduces100tonnesoforganicmaterialperhectare,creatingrich,friablesoilsinafewyears.Itproducesitsownfertiliser,fixingatmosphericNandstoringitinthegroundforusebyotherplants.Asthesoilimproves,yieldsaredoubled,eventripled.在拉美种植黎豆已经使贫化的土壤恢复了肥力〔137〕。每公顷黎豆可产生100吨的有机物质,使土壤在几年内变得肥而脆。它还产生自己的肥料,固定大气中的氮,将其储存在土地中供其他植物使用。随着土地的改善,产量也翻倍,甚至翻了三倍。
The15-yeartrialscarriedoutbytheRodaleInstituteshowedthattheconventionalsystemhadgreaterenvironmentalimpacts-60%morenitrateleachedintogroundwateroverafive-yearperiodthanintheorganicsystems[154,155].Soilsintheconventionalsystemwerealsorelativelyhighinwater-solublecarbon,hencevulnerabletoleachingout.Thebetterwaterinfiltrationratesoftheorganicsystemsmadethemlesspronetoerosionandlesslikelytocontributetowaterpollutionfromsurfacerunoff.罗代尔研究站进行的15年试验显示,常规系统对环境的影响更大,5年内浸入地下水中的硝酸盐比有机系统多60%〔154,155〕。常规系统中的土壤还相对含有较高的水溶性碳,因此更容易被排除。有机系统更高的水过滤率使其更不易于侵蚀,更不可能从表面流走之物致使水污染。EighteenReducedPesticides&NoIncreaseinPests十八、杀虫剂减少,害虫并未增加
Lesspesticides使用的杀虫剂更少
Systemssuchasthese,whicharecharacteristicofsustainableagriculturalapproaches,makeuseofthecomplexinteractionsofdifferentspecies,andshowhowimportanttherelationshipbetweenbiodiversityandagricultureis(seenextchapter).诸如此类可持续农业方法系统利用了不同物种之间复杂的交互作用关系,显示了生物多样性与农业之间的关系是多幺重要(参看下一节)。
Thehealthbenefitsofavoidingpesticidesarediscussedbrieflyin‘OrganicsforHealth’.避免杀虫剂带来的健康利益将在“有机有益健康”一节中简单讨论。
NineteenSupportingBiodiversity&UsingDiversity十九、支持生物多样性,利用多样性
Agriculturalbiodiversitycrucialforfoodsecurity农业生物多样性对粮食安全十分重要
Conservingandsupportingbiodiversity保持和支持生物多样性
Empiricalevidencefromastudyconductedsince1994showsthatbiodiverseecosystemsaretwotothreetimesmoreproductivethanmonocultures[170,171].Inexperimentalplots,bothabovegroundandtotalbiomassincreasedsignificantlywithspeciesnumber.Thehighdiversityplotswerefairlyimmunetotheinvasionandgrowthofweeds,butthiswasnotsoformonoculturesandlowdiversityplots.Thus,biodiversesystemsaremoreproductive,andlesspronetoweedsaswell!自1994年进行的一项研究实验证据显示,生物多样化的生态系统比单一栽培的生产力高二至三倍。在试验地中,地面和总计生物数量都大幅增加。生物多样性高的试验地相对地可免受侵害,杂草也较少,但是单一栽培和生物多样性低的试验地却不是如此。因此,生物多样性的系统生产力更高,也较为不易受到杂草侵害!
Provingwithstunningresultsthatplantingadiversityofcropsisbeneficial(comparedwithmonocultures),thousandsofChinesericefarmershavedoubledyieldsandnearlyeliminateditsmostdevastatingdiseasewithoutusingchemicalsorspendingmore[172,173].ScientistsworkedtogetherwithfarmersinYunnan,whoimplementedasimplepracticethatradicallyrestrictedthericeblastfungusthatdestroysmillionsoftonsofriceandcostsfarmersseveralbilliondollarsinlosseseachyear.鉴于种植多样性农作物有益(与单一栽培相比)这样令人惊奇的结果,中国上千稻米农民的产量已经翻倍,没有使用任何化学品或花费更多的钱就几乎消除了最具破坏性的疾病〔172,173〕。科学家与云南的农民一起工作,采取了简单的做法却极大地限制了每年毁坏上百万大米、导致农民损失数十亿美元的水稻稻瘟真菌。
Insteadofplantinglargestandsofasingletypeofrice,asistypical,farmersplantedamixtureoftwovarieties:astandardhybridricethatdoesnotusuallysuccumbtoriceblastandamuchmorevaluableglutinousor‘sticky’riceknowntobeverysusceptible.Thegeneticallydiversericecropswereplantedinallthericefieldsinfivetownshipsin1998(812hectares),andtentownshipsin1999(3342hectares).与常规大量种植单一类型的水稻相反,农民将两种混合种植:通常不屈服于水稻稻瘟的标准杂交稻和一种易受感染、但更有价值的糯米。1998年,有5个镇(812公顷)的所有稻田都种植了遗传基因不同的水稻作物,到1999年时达到了10个镇(3342公顷)。
Integratingfishintofloodedricesystemsalsocausednosignificantdeclineinriceyields,andinsomecasesincreasedyields.NetreturnsfromsellingthefishaveragedTk7354(US$147)perfarmerperseason,morethanthereturnsfromrice.Aswithvegetables,rice-fishfarmersatefishmorefrequentlyanddonatedmuchofittotheirsocialnetworks.将鱼与灌溉水稻系统集成也不会使水稻产量下降,在一些情况下还增加了产量。每名农户每季销售鱼的净收入为Tk7354(147美元),比水稻的收入高。而种植蔬菜,水稻-鱼的农民则可经常吃鱼,并将大部分捐赠给社会网络。
Twenty
Environmental&EconomicSustainability二十、环境与经济的可持续性
Sustainableproduction可持续生产ResearchpublishedinNatureinvestigatedthesustainabilityoforganic,conventionalandintegrated(combiningbothmethods)appleproductionsystemsinWashingtonfrom1994-1999[175,176].Theorganicsystemrankedfirstintermsofenvironmentalandeconomicsustain-ability,theintegratedsystemsecondandtheconventionalsystemlast.Theindicatorsusedweresoilquality,horticulturalperformance,orchardprofitability,environmentalqualityandenergyefficiency.《自然》上发表的研究对华盛顿1994-1999年间有机、常规和集成(结合两种方法)苹果生产系统的可持续性进行了调查〔175,176〕。就环境和经济可持续性来说,有机系统排在第一位,综合系统排在第二,而常规系统在最后。使用的指标包括土壤质量、园艺表现、果园盈利、环境质量和能量效率等。
Soilqualityratingsin1998and1999fortheorganicandintegratedsystemsweresignificantlyhigherthanfortheconventionalsystem,duetotheadditionofcompostandmulch.Allthreesystemsgavecomparableyields,withnoobservabledifferencesinphysiologicaldisordersorpestanddiseasedamage.Thereweresatisfactorylevelsofnutrientsforall.Aconsumertastetestfoundorganicappleslesstartatharvestandsweeterthanconventionalapplesaftertheappleswerestoredforsixmonths.由于额外使用了堆肥和覆盖物,1998年到1999年土壤质量的等级在有机和集成系统中比常规系统高出很多。所有三个系统的产量都相当,在生理障碍或害虫和疾病损害方面没有观察到差别。所有系统的营养水平都比较满意。对消费者口味的测试发现,成熟的有机苹果较为不酸,储存了6个月后比常规苹果更甜。
Organicappleswerethemostprofitableduetopricepremiumsandquickerinvestmentreturn.Despiteinitiallowerreceiptsinthefirstthreeyears,duetothetimetakentoconverttocertifiedorganicfarming,thepricepremiuminthenextthreeyearsaveraged50%aboveconventionalprices.Inthelongterm,theorganicsystemrecoveredcostsfaster.Thestudyprojectedthattheorganicsystemwouldbreakevenafter9years,butthattheconventionalsystemwoulddosoonlyafter15years,andtheintegratedsystem,after17years.鉴于溢价因素,有机苹果的利润最高,投资回报最快。尽管在最初三年最初的收成较低,但是在后三年溢价因素将使价格比传统价格高50%。长期来看,有机系统收回成本的速度更快。研究显示,有机系统甚至在9年后就可突破,而常规系统需要在15年后,而集成系统则需要在17年后。
Environmentalimpactwasassessedbyaratingindextodeterminepotentialadverseimpactsofpesticidesandfruitthinners:thehighertherating,thegreaterthenegativeimpact.Theratingoftheconventionalsystemwas6.2timesthatoftheorganicsystem.Despitehigherlabourneeds,theorganicsystemexpendedlessenergyonfertiliser,weedcontrolandbiologicalcontrolofpests,makingitthemostenergyefficient.环境影响是通过决定杀虫剂和水果稀释剂潜在负面影响的等级指数来评估的,即等级越高,负面影响越大。常规系统的等级是有机系统的6.2倍。尽管有机系统所需的人工更多,但是该系统对肥料、杂草管理和害虫的生物控制的依赖更少,因此使其能量效力最高。
Itsassessmentshowedthatorganicmattercontentisusuallyhigherinorganicsoils,indicatinghigherfertility,stabilityandmoistureretentioncapacity,whichreducetheriskoferosionanddesertification.Organicsoilshavesignificantlyhigherbiologicalactivityandhighermassofmicro-organisms,makingformorerapidnutrientrecyclingandimprovedsoilstructure.这项评估显示,有机物质含量通常比较高的有机土壤显示肥力更高、更稳定、含分能力更强,这些都使侵蚀和沙漠化的风险降低。有机土壤生物活动更强,微生物数量更多,使其营养循环更快,改善了土壤结构。
Twenty-One
AmelioratingClimateChange二十一、改善气候变化
Energyefficient,reduceddirectandindirectenergyuse能量效率,减少了能量的直接和间接使用
‘Modern’agriculturehasalottoanswerforintermsofcontributingtoclimatechange,whichisbyfarthemostdauntingproblemthathumankindhaseverencountered.Ithasincreasedemissionsofnitrousoxideandmethane,potentgreenhousegasses;itisfossilfuelenergyintensiveandcontributestothelossofsoilcarbontotheatmosphere[179].“现代”农业就对气候变化来说应负很多责任,而气候变化是到目前为止人类曾面临的最令人害怕的问题。气候变化增加了一氧化二氮和甲烷的释放,带来强烈的温室气体;气候变化使化石燃料能量更广,使土壤碳损失到大气中〔179〕。
Organicagriculturewasmoreenergyefficientthanconventionalagricultureinappleproductionsystems[175,176].StudiesinDenmarkcomparedorganicandconventionalfarmingformilkandbarleygrainproduction[181].Thetotalenergyusedperkilogramofmilkproducedwaslowerintheorganicthanintheconventionaldairyfarm,whilethetotalenergyusedtogrowahectareoforganicspringbarleywas35%lowerthanusedtoproduceconventionalspringbarleyonthesamearea.However,organicyieldwaslower,thusenergyusedtoproduceonekgofbarleywasonlymarginallylowerfortheorganicthanfortheconventional.在苹果生产体系中,有机农业的能量比常规农业的能量效力要高〔175,176〕。丹麦的研究对有机和常规牛奶和大麦生产进行了比较〔181〕。每公斤牛奶使用的总计能量,在有机系统中比在常规奶牛场的低,而种植1公顷有机春季黑麦使用的总计能量比在同样大小土地上种植常规春季黑麦的要低35%。但是,有机产量更低,因此生产1公斤黑麦所使用的能量,有机的仅仅比常规的低一点。
Carbondioxide(CO2)emissionswerecalculatedtobe48-66%lowerperhectareinorganicfarmingsystemsinEurope[133,178],andwereattributedtothecharacteristicsoforganicagriculture,i.e.,noinputofmineralNfertiliserswithhighenergyconsumption,loweruseofhighenergyconsumingfeedstuffs,lowerinputofmineralfertilisers(P,K)andeliminationofpesticides.在欧洲,有机耕作系统中每公顷产生的二氧化碳也低48-66%,这是有机农业特点,即没有使用高能消耗的矿物氮肥料、较少使用高能消耗饲料、矿物肥料(磷、钾)和取消了杀虫剂等带来的。
Furthermore,becauseofsustainableagriculture’sfocusonlocalproduction,consumptionanddistribution,lessenergyiswastedontransportationofproducts,particularlybyair.Accordingtoastudycarriedoutin2001,greenhousegasemissionsassociatedwiththetransportoffoodfromalocalfarmtoafarmer’smarketwere650timeslowerthanemissionsassociatedwiththeaveragefoodsoldinsupermarkets[citedin179].此外,由于可持续农业集中在本地生产、消耗和分销,在产品运输方面,尤其是通过空气消耗的能量更少。根据2001年进行的一项研究,粮食从本地农场运输到农民市场所产生的温室气体平均比超市里销售之粮食产生的温室气体低650倍。
Greatercarbonsequestration碳封存更多
SoilsareanimportantsinkforatmosphericCO2,butthissinkhasbeenincreasinglydepletedbyconventionalagriculturallanduse.Sustainableagricultureapproaches,however,helptocounteractclimatechangebyrestoringsoilorganicmattercontent(see‘BetterSoils’),astheseincreasecarbonfixationbelowground.Organicmatterisrestoredbytheadditionofmanures,compost,mulchesandcovercrops.虽然土壤是大气二氧化碳的一个重要接收器,但是这个接收器却因常规农业土地的使用而不断衰竭。然而,可持续农业方法却可通过恢复土壤有机物质含量来中和气候变化(参考“更肥沃的土壤”一节),因为这样可以增加碳在地下的固定。有机物质通过额外的粪肥、堆肥、覆盖物和间作而得到恢复。
PrettyandHinesuggestthatthe208projectstheyassessedaccumulatedsome55.1milliontonnesofcarbon(C)[130].TheSAFSProjectfoundthatorganicCcontentofthesoilincreasedinbothorganicandlow-inputsystems[143],whilethestudyof20commercialfarmsinCaliforniafoundthatorganicfieldshad28%moreorganicC[148].普雷蒂和海因认为,他们评估的208个项目积累了约5510万吨的碳(C)〔130〕。SAFS项目发现,土壤中有机碳含量在有机和低投入系统中都有所增加〔143〕,而对加州20家商业农场的研究发现,有机土地中含有的有机碳多28%〔148〕。
Thiswasalsotrueinthe15-yearstudybytheRodaleInstitute,wheresoilClevelsincreasedinthetwoorganicsystems,butnotintheconventionalsystem[141].TheresearchersconcludedthatorganicsystemsshowedsignificantabilitytoabsorbandretainC,raisingthepossibilitythatsustainableagriculturepracticescanhelpreducetheimpactofglobalwarming.这在罗代尔研究站进行的为期15年的试验中也是一样的,在他们的试验中,土壤碳的含量在两种有机系统中都增加了,但在常规系统中则没有增加〔141〕。研究员总结说,有机系统显示了极大吸收和保持碳的能力,提高了可持续农业做法可以帮助减轻全球升温的可能性。
Lessnitrousoxideemissions释放更少的一氧化氮
Twenty-TwoEfficient&ProfitableProduction二十二、有效、有盈利的生产
Productivityenhanced生产力提高
Anyyielddecreaseinorganicagricultureismorethanmadeupforbyitsecologicalandefficiencygains,andlowercosts,makingitaprofitableventure.TheSwissstudyfoundthatinputoffertiliserandenergywasreducedby34-53%andpesticideinputby97%,whereasmeancropyieldwasonly20%loweroverthe21years,indicatingefficientproductionandresourceuse[149,150].Theorganicapproachwascommerciallyviableinthelong-term,producingmorefoodperunitofenergyorresources.有机农业任何产量的减少大都是为了使生态和效率提高,成本降低,使其成为一项有盈利的事业。瑞士研究发现,21年来肥料和能量的投入减少了34-53%,而杀虫剂投入减少了97%,同时平均农作物产量却仅仅低20%,这显示生产和资源利用十分有效〔149,150〕。有机方法从长期来看在商业上是可行的,每个能量单位或资源单位生产的食品更多。
Datashowthatsmallerfarmsproducefarmoreperunitareathanlargerfarms(whichtendtobemonoculturescharacteristicofconventionalfarming)[136].Thoughtheyieldperunitareaofonecropmaybeloweronasmallfarmthanonalargemonoculture,thetotaloutputperunitarea,oftencomposedofmorethanadozencropsandvariousanimalproducts,canbefarhigher.Smallfarmsarealsomoreefficientthanlargeonesintermsoflanduseand‘totalfactorproductivity’,anaveragingoftheefficiencyofuseofallthedifferentfactorsthatgointoproduction,includingland,labour,inputs,capital,etc.数据显示,每个地区较小农场的生产远远比较大的农场多(后者倾向于常规耕作的单一栽培)〔136〕。虽然小农场一种农作物每单位区域的产量可能比大的单一栽培的产量低,但是每个单位区域总共的产出常常由十几种农作物和各种动物组成,因此更高。小农场在土地利用和“总因素生产力”方面比大农场更有效,后一个参数是生产中不同因素使用的平均效率,包括土地、人工、投入、资本等。
StudiesinBoliviashowthatthoughyieldsaregreaterinchemicallyfertilisedandmachinery-preparedpotatofields,energycostsarehigherandneteconomicbenefitslower,thanwherenativelegumeshavebeenusedasrotationalcrops[135].Surveysindicatethatfarmerspreferthelatteralternativesystembecauseitoptimisestheuseofscarceresources,labourandavailablecapital,andisaccessibletoevenpoorproducers.玻利维亚的研究显示,虽然化学施肥和机械准备的马铃薯土地的产量更高,但是能量成本也更高,纯经济效益也比使用本地豆类作为轮作物的土地更低〔135〕。调查显示,农民宁愿选择后一种替换系统,因为这个系统使稀有资源、人力和可用资本得到优化利用,甚至对贫穷的生产者来说也可以利用。
Despitetheslightreductionincornandsoybeanyields,theorganicsystemshadlowerproductioncoststhanthehighinputstrategy.Consequently,netreturns,withoutconsideringorganicpricepremiums,forthetwostrategieswereequivalent.Thescientistssuggestedthatorganicproductionsystemscouldbecompetitivewithconventionalones.尽管玉米和大豆产量稍微减少,但是有机战略的生产成本比高投入战略低。相应地,在不考虑有机溢价的情况下,两种战略的纯收入是相等的。科学家认为有机生产系统能与常规系统竞争。
AcomprehensivereviewofthemanycomparisonstudiesofgrainandsoybeanproductionconductedbysixUSMidwesternuniversitiessince1978foundthatingeneral,organicproductionwasequivalentto,andinsomecasesbetterthan,conventional[183].Organicsystemshadhigheryieldsthanconventionalsystemsthatfeaturedcontinuouscropproduction(i.e.nocroprotations),andequalorloweryieldsthanconventionalsystemsthatincludedcroprotations.Indrierclimates,organicsystemshadhigheryields,astheyweremoredrought-hardythanconventionalsystems.对美国中西部6所大学自1978年以来对谷物和大豆生产的比较研究进行全面回顾后发现,一般上,有机生产都与常规生产相当,在一些情况下还比后者更高〔183〕。有机系统的产量比以连续作物生产为特点(即没有轮作)的常规系统的产量高,与采用了作物轮作的常规系统的产量相等或较低。在较干的气候下,有机系统的产量较高,因为它们比常规系统更能抗干旱。
Twenty-Three
ImprovedFoodSecurity&BenefitstoLocalCommunities二十三、粮食安全改善、本地社区受益
Increasedlocalfoodproduction本地粮食生产增加Despiteadequateglobalfoodproduction,manystillgohungrybecauseincreasedfoodsupplydoesnotautomaticallymeanincreasedfoodsecurity.Whatisimportantiswhoproducesthefood,whohasaccesstothetechnologyandknowledgetoproduceit,andwhohasthepurchasingpowertoacquireit[130].Poorfarmerscannotaffordexpensive‘modern’technologiesthattheoreticallyraiseyields.尽管全球粮食生产充足,但是很多人仍然陷入飢饿,因为增加的粮食供应并没有自动地意味着增加粮食安全。重要的是谁生产了粮食,谁可以使用技术和知识来生产,谁有购买力来获得〔130〕。贫穷的农民无法支付理论上可以提高产量的昂贵的“现代”技术。
Manyfarmersshow‘laggingproductivity’,notbecausetheylack‘miracle’seedsthatcontaintheirowninsecticideortoleratemassivedosesofherbicide,butbecausetheyhavebeendisplacedontomarginal,rain-fedlands,andfacestructuresandmacroeconomicpoliciesthathavebuiltonhistoricalinequalitiesandthatareincreasinglyinimicaltofoodproductionbysmallfarmers[184].很多农民表现出“滞后的生产力”,不是因为他们缺乏含有自身杀虫剂或耐大量除草剂的“神奇”种子,而是因为他们被置于边缘、雨量大的土地,面临域根据历史不平等建立的结构和宏观经济政策,且这些结构和政策正不断增加小农粮食生产的初期投入〔184〕。
Assuch,theiragricultureisbestcharacterisedas‘complex,diverseandriskprone’[185],andtheyhavetailoredagriculturaltechnologiestotheirvariablebutuniquecircumstances,intermsoflocalclimate,topography,soils,biodiversity,croppingsystems,resources,etc.Itisthesefarmers,alreadyrisk-prone,whostandtobeharmedmostbytherisksofGMcrops[184].有鉴于此,其农业特点可归结节为“复杂、多样和易受风险”〔185〕,他们已经使农业技术能适应可变但独特的条件,即本地的气候、地形、土壤、生物多样性、耕作体制、资源等。正是这些易受风险的农民最多地受到了转基因农作物风险的危害〔184〕。
Sustainableagriculturalapproachesmustthusallowfarmerstoimprovelocalfoodproductionwithlow-cost,readilyavailabletechnologiesandinputs,withoutcausingenvironmentaldamage.Thiswasindeedthecase,asreviewedbyPrettyandHine[130].Mostsustainableagricultureprojectsandinitiativesreportedsignificantincreasesinhouseholdfoodproduction-someasyieldimprovements,someasincreasesincroppingintensityordiversityofproduce.可持续农业方法因此必须允许农民使用低成本的可用技术和投入来改善本地的粮食生产,同时不会对环境带来破坏。这才是真正的可持续农业,如普雷蒂和海因〔130〕所回顾的一样。大多数可持续农业计划和最初的报告都极大地使家庭粮食生产产量改善(一些产量提高,一些耕作强度或生产多样性增加)。
Theevidenceshowed:证据显示:.Averagefoodproductionperhouseholdincreasedby1.71tonnesperyear(up73%)for4.42millionfarmerson3.58millionhectares.442万农民在358万公顷的土地上每户每年平均粮食生产增加了1.71吨(73%)。.Increaseinfoodproductionwas17tonnesperyear(anincreaseof150%)for146000farmerson542000hectarescultivatingroots(potato,sweetpotatoandcassava).146000名农民在542000公顷培植根茎(马铃薯、甘薯和木薯)上,每年粮食生产增加17吨(增加150%)。
.Totalproductionincreasedby150tonnesperhousehold(anincreaseof46%)forthelargerfarmsinLatinAmerica(averagesize90hectares).拉美较大农场(平均规模90公顷)每户总计生产增加150吨(增加46%)。
Thereviewfoundthatasfoodsupplyincreased,domesticconsumptionalsoincreased,withdirecthealthbenefits,particularlyforwomenandchildren.Furthermore,88%ofthe208projectsmadebetteruseoflocally-availablenaturalresources,and92%improvedhumancapitalthroughlearningprogrammes.Inmorethanhalftheprojects,peopleworkedtogether.回顾发现,随着粮食供应的增加,国内消费也增加,直接带来健康利益,尤其是为妇女和儿童带来健康利益。此外,208个项目中88%都更好地利用了本地可用自然资源,92%通过学习计划改善了人力资本。超过一半的项目中,人们都协同工作。
Learningfromfarmers向农民学习Sustainableagriculturalapproachesrecognisethevalueoftraditionalandindigenousknowledge,andoffarmers’experienceandinnovation.Theimportanceandvalueoflearningfromfarmers,andoffarmer-ledparticipatoryagriculturalresearch,arewellestablishedinconceptssuchas‘farmerfirst’[185,186].可持续农业方法认可了传统和本地知识,认可了农民的经验和创新。向农民学习的重要性和价值,农民主导参与农业研究的重要性和价值都可在“农民优先”这样的概念中体现出来〔185,186〕。
CasestudiesandexperiencesofsuccessfulagroecologicalinnovationsfromAfrica,LatinAmericaandAsia[187]provideevidencethatlow-external-inputagricultureusingagroecologicalpracticescouldmakeanimportantcontributiontofeedingtheworldoverthenext30to50years.Relyingonmainlylocalresourcesandknowledge,farmersareabletoincreaseyieldssubstantially,sometimesdoublingortriplingoutputs.非洲、拉美和亚洲的案例研究和农业生态创新的成功经验〔187〕使用农业生态学的外部低投入农业可以在未来30-50年为世界供应粮食作出重要的贡献。主要依靠本地资源和知识,农民就能够实质地增加产量,有时甚至翻两倍或三倍。
Tociteoneexample,inMali'sSahelianZone,soilandwaterconservationpracticesandagroforestryhaveincreasedcerealyields,insomecasesfrom300kg/hato1700kg/ha,abouttwicethelevelneededtomeetbasicfoodneeds.Emphasishasalsobeenplacedonconservingtraditionalvarietiesofseedsandbiodiversity,throughfarmer-basedevaluationandcommunityorlocalgenebanks.在马里萨赫勒地区有一个例子,保持水土的做法和农业森林学使谷类产量增加,一些情况下从300公斤/公顷增加到1700公斤/公顷,约是满足基本粮食需要的两倍。同时重点还放在通过农民的评估和社区或本地基因库来保持传统种子品种和生物多样性。
Betterincomes,increasedfoodsecurity更多收入、增加粮食安全Evidencefromhundredsofgrassrootsdevelopmentprojectsshowsthatincreasingagriculturalproductivitywithagroecologicalpracticesnotonlyincreasesfoodsupplies,butalsoincreasesincomes,thusreducingpoverty,increasingfoodaccess,reducingmalnutritionandimprovingthelivelihoodsofthepoor[189].Agroecologicalsystemsleadtomorestablelevelsoftotalproductionperunitareathanhigh-inputsystems;theygivemoreeconomicallyfavorableratesofreturn,provideareturntolabourandotherinputsforalivelihoodacceptabletosmallfarmersandtheirfamilies.Theyalsoensuresoilprotectionandconservation,andenhanceagrobiodiversity[190].上百基层开发项目提供的证据显示,用农业生态学方法增加农业生产力不仅可以增加粮食供应,还可以增加收入,从而减少贫困,增加粮食准入,减少营养失调、改善贫困人口的生活〔189〕。农业生态学系统使每单元区域的总计生产比高投入系统更稳定;其经济回报率更高,为劳动和其他投入提供了回报,是小农及其家庭可接受的。他们还可确保土壤保护和保持,提高农业多样性〔190〕。
Generatingmoneyforthelocaleconomy为本地经济带来收入
MoneyflowsofanorganicboxschemefromCusgarneOrganics(UK)showedthebenefitofbuyinglocally,tothecommunityatlarge[192].Theeconomicanalysisfollowedthetrailofthefarmboxschemeincome,monitoringexactlywherethemoneywasspent,howmuchofitwas‘local’expenditure,andthentrackedthatmoneytothenextlayerofspending.(英国)CusgarneOrganics的一项有机盒计划显示了本地购买对社区整体带来的好处〔192〕。该计划对农业盒计划收入进行跟踪和经济分析,确切地监控了钱花在什幺地方,“本地”的成本是多少,然后追踪该笔款下一层花在哪儿。
Itestimatedthatforevery£1spentatCusgarneOrganics,£2.59isgeneratedforthelocaleconomy.Incontrast,astudyinvolvingsupermarketgiantsAsdaandTescofoundthatforevery£1spentatasupermarket,only£1.40isgeneratedforthelocaleconomy.Thestudyconcludes,“ThefiguresdemonstratethattheneteffectofspendingatCusgarneOrganicstothelocaleconomyisnearlydoubletheeffectofthesameamountspentwithout-of-countyandnationalbusinesses”(p.16).据估计,CusgarneOrganics每消费1英镑,将给本地经济带来2.59英镑的收入。比较而言,一项有关超市收入的Asda和Tesco研究发现,超市每消费1英镑,给本地经济只带来1.40英镑的收入。研究总结说,“这些数字显示,CusgarneOrganics消费到本地经济带来的纯收益是相同数额消费到国内外业务带来的纯收益的两倍。”Twenty-FourOrganicsforHealth二十四、有机食物有益健康
Thenegativeeffectsofpesticidesonhealthincludeneurotoxicity,disruptionoftheendocrinesystem,carcinogenicityandimmunesystemsuppression(seealso‘HerbicideHazards’).Theimpactsofdietaryexposuretopesticideresiduesatlevelstypicallyfoundinandonfoodarelesseasytoestablish,butaprecautionaryapproachisnecessary.Whiletherearerecommendedsafetylevelsforpesticides,theUKgovernment’sowntestshaveshownthataverageresiduelevelsonfoodsmaybeunder-reported.杀虫剂对健康的负面影响包括神经中毒、内分泌系统失调、致癌和免疫系统压制(请参考“杀虫剂危害”一节)。通过饮食接触普通量的杀虫剂残留物的影响通常发现于食物里面和表面,因此更不容易确定,然而预防方法是必要的。虽然关于杀虫剂有建议的安全水平,但是英国政府自己的检测却显示食品上的平均残留物水平可能低报了。
Healthierandmorenutritious更健康、更营养
Additionally,organicfoodproductionbanstheuseofartificialfoodadditivessuchashydrogenatedfats,phosphoricacid,aspartameandmonosodiumglutamate,whichhavebeenlinkedtohealthproblemsasdiverseasheartdisease,osteoporosis,migrainesandhyperactivity[193].此外,有机食品生产禁止使用与诸如心脏病、骨质疏松症、偏头痛和机能亢进等健康问题有关的人工食品添加剂,如硬化油脂、磷酸、阿斯巴特和谷胺酸钠等〔193〕。
Conventionalproducealsotendstocontainmorewaterthanorganicproduce,whichcontainsmoredrymatter(onaverage,20%more)foragiventotalweight[193].Thus,thehighercostoffreshorganicproduceispartlyoffsetbypurchasersofconventionalproducepayingfortheextraweightofwaterandgettingonly83%ofthenutrients,onaverage,availableinorganicproduce.Thehigherwatercontentalsotendstodilutenutrientcontent.常规生产还趋向于含有比有机生产更多的水分,而后者在总重量相同的情况下含有更多的干物质(平均来说,多20%)〔193〕。因此,新鲜的有机产品成本较高部分被常规产品购买者为额外的水分支付费用,平均只得到有机产品83%的营养物质而抵销。较高的水分也使营养成分被冲淡。
Testswithpeopleandanimalseatingorganicfoodshowitmakesarealdifferencetohealth,andalternativecancertherapieshaveachievedgoodresultsrelyingontheexclusiveconsumptionoforganicfood.Thereview[193]citesrecentclinicalevidencefromdoctorsandnutritionistsadministeringalternativecancertreatments,whohaveobservedthatacompletelyorganicdietisessentialforasuccessfuloutcome.Nutritionalcancertherapiesavoidpollutantsandtoxinsasmuchaspossible,andpromoteexclusiveconsumptionoforganicallygrownfoodsandincreasesinnutrientintakes.Animalfeedingtrialshavealsodemonstratedbetterreproductivehealth,bettergrowth,andbetterrecoveryfromillness.对食用有机食品的人群和动物的测试显示,健康状态真正有所不同,依赖额外的有机食品消费使替换的癌症疗法可以达到好结果。回顾引用了医生和营养学家监控替换癌症疗法所得的最新临床证据,结果发现完全的有机饮食是获得成功结果最基本的。营养性癌症疗法可尽可能地避免污染物和毒素,促进消费额外的有机生产食品,增加营养的摄入。动物饲养试验也显示生殖健康、生长和疾病恢复都更好。
Helpingfightcancer帮助对抗癌症
Anearlierstudycomparingantioxidantcompoundsinorganicandconventionalpeachesandpearsestablishedthatanimprovementintheanti-oxidantdefencesystemoftheplantsoccurredasaconsequenceoforganiccultivationpractices[201].Thisislikelytoexertprotectionagainstfruitdamagewhengrownintheabsenceofpesticides.Henceorganicagriculture,whicheliminatestheroutineuseofsyntheticpesticidesandchemicalfertilisers,couldcreateconditionsfavourabletotheproductionofhealth-enhancingplantphenolics.早前一项比较有机和常规桃子和梨中抗氧化剂成分的研究确认,有机培养做法使植物抗氧化剂防卫系统得到改善〔201,可在没有使用杀虫剂种植时对水果损害发挥保护作用。因此,取消日常使用合成杀虫剂和化学肥料的有机农业能为产生改善健康的植物酚创造有利条件。
TheseandmanyotherhealthbenefitsoforganicfoodshavebeenbroughttotheattentionoftheUKgovernment[202,203].Amongtheissuesraisedarethehiddencostsofconventionalagriculture,whicharenotfactoredintotheprice.Ifhiddencostsweretakenintoaccount,conventionallyproducedfoodwouldprovemoreexpensivethanorganicfood.Forexample,avoidanceoftheBSE(‘madcowdisease’)epidemicthroughorganicfarmingwouldhavesaved£4.5billion.NoanimalbornandraisedonanorganicfarmdevelopedBSEintheUK.有机食品的此种及其它健康好处已提请英国政府注意〔202,203〕。提出的问题中包括常规农业没有计算在价格中的隐藏成本。如果隐藏成本考虑进来,将证明常规生产的食品比有机食品更贵。比如,通过有机耕作避免BSE(疯牛病)可节约45亿英镑。在英国,在有机农场中出生和饲养的动物没有患BSE。
Twenty-Five
ConclusiontoPart3二十五、第三部分总结
Sustainableagriculturalapproachescandeliversubstantialincreasesinfoodproductionatlowcost.Theycanbeeconomically,environmentallyandsociallyviable,andcontributepositivelytolocallivelihoods.Theyarealsobetterforhealthandtheenvironment.可持续农业方法能以最低的成本持续增加农业产量。可持续农业在经济、环境和社会方面都可行,可为本地生活做出积极贡献,且对健康和环境也更好。
Becausethetruerootcauseofhungerisinequalityamongstnationsandpeoples,anymethodofboostingfoodproductionthatdeepensinequalityisboundtofailtoreducehunger.Conversely,onlytechnologiesthathavepositiveeffectsonthedistributionofwealth,incomeandassetscantrulyreducehunger[4].Fortunately,suchtechnologiesalreadyexistinsustainableapproachestoagriculture.由于饥饿的真正原因是国家与人民之间的不平等,因此,任何以不平等为基础来提升粮食生产的方法都注定不会减少饥饿。相反,只有对财富、收入和资产分配有积极效果的技术才能真正地减少飢饿〔4〕。幸运地是,这种技术已经在农业的可持续方法中存在。
2.Agriculture:Towards2015/30.FAOGlobalPerspectivesStudiesUnit,July2000.
3.AltieriMAandRossetP.Tenreasonswhybiotechnologywillnotensurefoodsecurity,protecttheenvironmentandreducepovertyinthedevelopingworld.AgBioForum,Volume2,Number3&4,Summer/Fall1999,155-162.
4.AltieriMAandRossetP.Strengtheningthecaseforwhybiotechnologywillnothelpthedevelopingworld:AresponsetoMcGloughlin.AgBioForum,Volume2,Number3&4,Summer/Fall1999,226-236.
10.HoMW.Thestateoftheart.Thecontinuingdebacleofanindustrybothfinanciallyandscientificallybankrupt.GeneWatch(inpress),2003.
11.“Monsantoinvestorsfacecatastrophicrisk,”Greenpeace,Berlin,PressRelease,16April,2003.
13.BenbrookC.DoGMcropsmeanlesspesticideusePesticideOutlook,October2001.
15.Seedsofdoubt,NorthAmericanfarmers’experiencesofGMcrops.SoilAssociation,2002,ISBN0905200896.
16.ShivaVandJafriAH.FailureoftheGMOsinIndia.ResearchFoundationforScience,TechnologyandEcologyReport,2003;seealsoHoMW.LivingwiththeFluidGenome.ISIS&TWN,LondonandPenang,2003.Chapter1,Box1.
17.FinneganHandMcElroyD.Transgeneinactivation:plantsfightback!Bio/Technology1994,12,883-8.
18.HoMW.LivingwiththeFluidGenome.ISIS&TWN,LondonandPenang,2003.Chapter11,Section,“Transgenicinstability,thebestkeptopensecret”.
20.GahakwaD,MaqboolSB,FuX,SudhakarD,ChristouPandKohliA.Transgenicriceasasystemtostudythestabilityoftransgeneexpression:multipleheterologoustransgenesshowsimilarbehaviourindiversegeneticbackgrounds.Theor.Appl.Genet.2000,101,388-99.
22.HallL,TopinkaK,HuffmanJ,DavisL,andGoodA.Pollenflowbetweenherbicide-resistantBrassicanapusisthecauseofmultiple-resistantB.napusvolunteers.WeedScience2000,48,688-94.
23.OrsonJ.Genestackinginherbicidetolerantoilseedrape:lessonsfromtheNorthAmericanexperience.EnglishNatureResearchReportsNo.443.EnglishNature,Jan.2002,ISSN0967-876X.
26.“EngineeredGenesHelpWildWeedsThrive”,byCatLazaroff,EnvironmentalNewsService,Washington,USA,9August2002.
27.LimLC.EnvironmentalandHealthImpactsofBtcrops.ISISReport,April,2003;containing63references.
28.QuistDandChapelaIH.TransgenicDNAintrogressedintotraditionalmaizelandracesinOaxaca,Mexico.Nature2001,414,541-543.
31.HoMW.Canadianfarmersagainstcorporateserfdom.ScienceinSociety2002,16,5-6.
32.KietkeL.Researchshows:herbicidetoleranceeverywhere.ManitobaCo-operator,August1,2002;FriesenLF,NelsonAFandVanAckerRC.Evidenceofcontaminationofpedigreedcanola(Brassicanapus)seedlotsinWesternCanadawithgeneticallyengineeredherbicideresistancetraits.AgronomyJournal(inpress).
34.MeierPandWackernagelW.MonitoringthespreadofrecombinantDNAfromfieldplotswithtransgenicsugarbeetplantsbyPCRandnaturaltransformationofPseudomonasstutzeri.TransgenicResearch2003,12,293-304.
39.HoMWandSteinbrecherR.Fatalflawsinfoodsafetyassessment:CritiqueofthejointFAO/WHOBiotechnologyandFoodSafetyReport.JournalofNutritionalandEnvironmentalInteractions1998,2,51-84.
40.ConnerAJ.Casestudy:foodsafetyevaluationoftransgenicpotato.InApplicationofthePrincipleofSubstantialEquivalencetotheSafetyEvaluationofFoodsorFoodComponentsfromPlantsDerivedbyModernBiotechnology,pp.23-35,WHO/FNU/FOS/95.1.WorldHealthOrganization,Geneva,Switzerland.
41.MartineauB.FirstFruit.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,2001.
42.GreenpeaceBusiness,Issue66,April/May2002.
Launched10May2003,London
TheIndependentSciencePanel(ISP)isapanelofscientistsfrommanydisciplines,committedtothefollowing.独立科研小组(ISP)是一个由众多科学家组成的专门小组,遵守和致力于以下目标。
1.Promotingscienceforthepublicgood,independentofcommercialandotherspecialinterests,orofgovernmentcontrol1.推动公益科学,与商业和其他特殊利益无关,不受政府控制
2.Maintainingthehigheststandardsofintegrityandimpartialityinscience2.保持科学最高标准的完整性和公正性
Wesubscribetotheprinciplesofhonesty,opennessandpluralisminthepracticeofscience.Thereshouldbeopenpeer-reviewforpublishedwork,andrespectandprotectionforthosewhoseresearchchallengestheconventionalparadigmormajorityopinion.Scientificdisagreementsmustbeopenlyanddemocraticallydebated.我们赞成科学行为的诚实、公开和多重性。对发布的作品应有公开回顾,并尊重和保护质疑常规范式或主流意见的研究。科学争论必须公开、民主地进行。
Wearecommittedtoupholdingthehigheststandardsofscientificresearch,andtoensuringthatresearchfundingisnotskewedordistortedbycommercialorpoliticalimperatives.我们致力于坚持最高标准的科学研究,确保研究发现不会被商业或政治命令歪曲或扭曲。
3.Developingsciencesthatcanhelpmaketheworldsustainable,equitable,peacefulandlife-enhancingforallitsinhabitants3.发展科学促进世界持续、平等与和平,提高所有居住者生活
Werespectthesanctityofhumanlife,seektominimiseharmtoanylivingcreature,andprotecttheenvironment.Weholdthatscienceshouldcontributetothephysical,socialandspiritualwell-beingofallinallsocieties.我们尊重人类生命的圣洁,寻求使对任何生命体的伤害最小化的保护环境。我们坚持认为科学应为所有社会所有人的身体、社会和精神健康做贡献。Wearecommittedtoanecologicalperspectivethattakesproperaccountofthecomplexity,diversityandinterdependenceofallnature.我们坚持正确考虑所有自然的复杂性、多样性和独立性的生态观点。Wesubscribetotheprecautionaryprinciple:whenthereisreasonablesuspicionofseriousorirreversibledamage,lackofscientificconsensusmustnotbeusedtopostponepreventativeaction.我们赞成预防原则:如合理怀疑存在严重或不可改变的损害时,缺乏科学共识也不能做为推迟预防行动的依据。Werejectscientificendeavoursthatserveaggressivemilitaryends,promotecommercialimperialismordamagesocialjustice.我们反对用于侵略性军事用途、推动商业帝国主义或损害社会公正的科学研究。
Wefindthefollowingaspectsespeciallyregrettableandunacceptable:我们认为以下方面尤其遗憾和不可接受:
.LackofcriticalpublicinformationonthescienceandtechnologyofGM缺乏有关转基因科学与技术的重要公众信息
.LackofpublicaccountabilityintheGMsciencecommunity转基因科学界缺乏对公众负责
.Lackofindependent,disinterestedscientificresearchinto,andassessmentof,thehazardsofGM缺乏对转基因危害独立、无私的科学研究和评估
.Partisanattitudeofregulatoryandotherpublicinformationbodies,whichappearmoreintentonspreadingcorporatepropagandathanprovidingcrucialinformation规范机构及其它公共作息结构的偏袒态度似乎更倾向于传播公司的宣传而不是提供至关紧要的信息
.PervasivecommercialandpoliticalconflictsofinterestsinbothresearchanddevelopmentandregulationofGM转基因的研究与开发和转基因的规范有广泛的商业、政治利益冲突
.Suppressionandvilificationofscientistswhotrytoconveyresearchinformationtothepublicthatisdeemedtoharmtheindustry压制和中伤那些试图向公众传达会损害该产业信息的科学家
.PersistentdenialanddismissalofextensivescientificevidenceonthehazardsofGMtohealthandtheenvironmentbyproponentsofgeneticmodificationandbysupposedlydisinterestedadvisoryandregulatorybodies面对广泛的证据说明转基因在现场和实验室失败的情况下,仍持续通过生物技术公司来声称转基因的好处,并通过科学确认来复制这些声称
.ContinuingclaimsofGMbenefitsbythebiotechcorporations,andrepetitionsoftheseclaimsbythescientificestablishment,inthefaceofextensiveevidencethatGMhasfailedbothinthefieldandinthelaboratory.持续通过支持基因改造及无私咨询和规范机构的推测来否认和驳回转基因对健康和环境危害的广泛科学证据.ReluctancetorecognizethatthecorporatefundingofacademicresearchinGMisalreadyindecline,andthatthebiotechnologymultinationals(andtheirshareholders)aswellasinvestmentconsultantsarenowquestioningthewisdomofthe‘GMenterprise’不愿认可公司对转基因学术研究的资助已经在减少,生物技术跨国公司(及其股东)和投资顾问现在都对“转基因企业”的智慧表示质疑
.Attackson,andsummarydismissalof,extensiveevidencepointingtothebenefitsofvarioussustainableagriculturalapproachesforhealthandtheenvironment,aswellasforfoodsecurityandsocialwell-beingoffarmersandtheirlocalcommunities.各种可持续农业方法为健康和环境及农民及其本地社区的粮食安全和社会健康带来好处的广泛证据遭到攻击,并即决驳回。IndependentSciencePanelonGMListofMembers转基因独立科研小组成员名单
Prof.MiguelAltieri
ProfessorofAgroecology,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,USA
Dr.MichaelAntoniou
SeniorLecturerinMolecularGenetics,GKTSchoolofMedicine,King’sCollege,London
Dr.SusanBardocz
Biochemist;formerlyRowettResearchInstitute,Scotland
Prof.DavidBellamyOBE
Internationallyrenownedbotanist,environmentalist,broadcaster,authorandcampaigner;recipientofnumerousawards;PresidentandVicePresidentofmanyconservationandenvironmentalorganizations
Dr.ElizabethBravoV.
Biologist,researcherandcampaigneronbiodiversityandGMOissues;co-founderofAcciónEcológica;part-timelectureratUniversidadPolitécnicaSalesiana,Ecuador
Prof.JoeCummins
ProfessorEmeritusofGenetics,UniversityofWesternOntario,London,Ontario,Canada
Dr.StanleyEwen
ConsultantHistopathologistatGrampianUniversityHospitalsTrust;formerlySeniorLecturerinPathology,UniversityofAberdeen;leadhistopathologistfortheGrampianarmoftheScottishColorectalCancerScreeningPilotProject
EdwardGoldsmith
RecipientoftheRightLivelihoodandnumerousawards,environmentalist,scholar,authorandFoundingEditorofTheEcologist
Dr.BrianGoodwin
ScholarinResidence,SchumacherCollege,England
Dr.Mae-WanHo(何美芸,又翻译为“侯美婉”)
Co-founderandDirectoroftheInstituteofScienceinSociety;EditorofthemagazineScienceinSociety;ScienceAdvisortotheThirdWorldNetworkandontheRosterofExpertsfortheCartagenaProtocolonBiosafety
Prof.MalcolmHooper
EmeritusProfessorattheUniversityofSunderland;previously,ProfessorofMedicinalChemistry,FacultyofPharmaceuticalSciences,SunderlandPolytechnic;ChiefScientificAdvisortotheGulfWarVeterans
Dr.VyvyanHoward
Medicallyqualifiedtoxico-pathologist,DevelopmentalToxico-PathologyGroup,DepartmentofHumanAnatomyandCellBiology,TheUniversityofLiverpool;memberoftheUKGovernment’sAdvisoryCommitteeonPesticides
Dr.BrianJohn
Geomorphologistandenvironmentalscientist;Founderandlong-timeChairmanoftheWestWalesEcoCentre;oneofthecoordinatinggroupofGMFreeCymru
Prof.MarijanJo.t
ProfessorofPlantBreedingandSeedProduction,AgriculturalCollegeKrizevci,Croatia
LimLiChing(林丽珍)
Researcher,InstituteofScienceinSocietyandThirdWorldNetwork;deputy-editorofScienceinSocietymagazine
Dr.EvaNovotny
AstronomerandcampaigneronGMissuesforScientistsforGlobalResponsibility,SGR
Prof.BobOrskovOBE
FormerlyRowettResearchInstitute,Aberdeen,Scotland;Director,InternationalFeedResourcesUnit;FellowoftheRoyalSocietyofEdinburgh,FRSE;FellowofthePolishAcademyofScience
Dr.MichelPimbert
AgriculturalecologistandPrincipalAssociate,InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment
Dr.ArpadPusztai(普兹泰)
Privateconsultant;formerlySeniorResearchFellowattheRowettResearchInstitute,Bucksburn,Aberdeen,Scotland
DavidQuist
Microbialecologist,EcosystemSciencesDivision,EnvironmentalScience,PolicyandManagement,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,USA
Dr.PeterRosset
Agriculturalecologistandruraldevelopmentspecialist;Co-directoroftheInstituteforFoodandDevelopmentPolicy(FoodFirst),Oakland,California,USA
Prof.PeterSaunders
ProfessorofAppliedMathematicsatKing'sCollege,London
Dr.VeljkoVeljkovic
AIDSvirologist,CenterforMultidisciplinaryResearchandEngineering,InstituteofNuclearSciencesVINCA,Belgrade,Yugoslavia
Prof.OscarB.Zamora
ProfessorofAgronomy,DepartmentofAgronomy,UniversityofthePhilippinesLosBanos-CollegeofAgriculture(UPLB-CA),College,Laguna,ThePhilippines
TheIndependentSciencePanel(ISP)onGM-launched10May2003atapublicconferenceinLondonattendedbythethenUKenvironmentministerMichaelMeacherand200otherparticipants-consistsofdozensofprominentscientistsfromsevencountries,spanningthedisciplinesofagroecology,agronomy,biomathematics,botany,chemicalmedicine,ecology,histopathology,microbialecology,moleculargenetics,nutritionalbiochemistry,physiology,toxicologyandvirology.
AstheircontributiontotheglobalGMdebate,theISPhascompiledthiscompletedossierofevidenceontheknownproblemsandhazardsofGMcropsaswellasonthemanifoldbenefitsofsustainableagriculture.
Readittomaketherightchoiceforthefutureofagricultureandfoodsecurity
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