1.OftheRelationofLawstodifferentBeings.Laws,intheirmostgeneralsignification,arethenecessaryrelationsarisingfromthenatureofthings.Inthissenseallbeingshavetheirlaws:theDeity1Hislaws,thematerialworlditslaws,theintelligencessuperiortomantheirlaws,thebeaststheirlaws,manhislaws.
Theywhoassertthatablindfatalityproducedthevariouseffectswebeholdinthisworldtalkveryabsurdly;forcananythingbemoreunreasonablethantopretendthatablindfatalitycouldbeproductiveofintelligentbeings
Thereis,then,aprimereason;andlawsaretherelationssubsistingbetweenitanddifferentbeings,andtherelationsofthesetooneanother.
Godisrelatedtotheuniverse,asCreatorandPreserver;thelawsbywhichHecreatedallthingsarethosebywhichHepreservesthem.Heactsaccordingtotheserules,becauseHeknowsthem;Heknowsthem,becauseHemadethem;andHemadethem,becausetheyareinrelationtoHiswisdomandpower.
Sinceweobservethattheworld,thoughformedbythemotionofmatter,andvoidofunderstanding,subsiststhroughsolongasuccessionofages,itsmotionsmustcertainlybedirectedbyinvariablelaws;andcouldweimagineanotherworld,itmustalsohaveconstantrules,oritwouldinevitablyperish.
Thusthecreation,whichseemsanarbitraryact,supposeslawsasinvariableasthoseofthefatalityoftheAtheists.ItwouldbeabsurdtosaythattheCreatormightgoverntheworldwithoutthoserules,sincewithoutthemitcouldnotsubsist.
Theserulesareafixedandinvariablerelation.Inbodiesmoved,themotionisreceived,increased,diminished,orlost,accordingtotherelationsofthequantityofmatterandvelocity;eachdiversityisuniformity,eachchangeisconstancy.
Particularintelligentbeingsmayhavelawsoftheirownmaking,buttheyhavesomelikewisewhichtheynevermade.Beforetherewereintelligentbeings,theywerepossible;theyhadthereforepossiblerelations,andconsequentlypossiblelaws.Beforelawsweremade,therewererelationsofpossiblejustice.Tosaythatthereisnothingjustorunjustbutwhatiscommandedorforbiddenbypositivelaws,isthesameassayingthatbeforethedescribingofacirclealltheradiiwerenotequal.
Wemustthereforeacknowledgerelationsofjusticeantecedenttothepositivelawbywhichtheyareestablished:as,forinstance,ifhumansocietiesexisted,itwouldberighttoconformtotheirlaws;iftherewereintelligentbeingsthathadreceivedabenefitofanotherbeing,theyoughttoshowtheirgratitude;ifoneintelligentbeinghadcreatedanotherintelligentbeing,thelatteroughttocontinueinitsoriginalstateofdependence;ifoneintelligentbeinginjuresanother,itdeservesaretaliation;andsoon.
Buttheintelligentworldisfarfrombeingsowellgovernedasthephysical.Forthoughtheformerhasalsoitslaws,whichoftheirownnatureareinvariable,itdoesnotconformtothemsoexactlyasthephysicalworld.Thisisbecause,ontheonehand,particularintelligentbeingsareofafinitenature,andconsequentlyliabletoerror;andontheother,theirnaturerequiresthemtobefreeagents.Hencetheydonotsteadilyconformtotheirprimitivelaws;andeventhoseoftheirowninstitutingtheyfrequentlyinfringe.
Whetherbrutesbegovernedbythegenerallawsofmotion,orbyaparticularmovement,wecannotdetermine.Bethatasitmay,theyhavenotamoreintimaterelationtoGodthantherestofthematerialworld;andsensationisofnootherusetothemthanintherelationtheyhaveeithertootherparticularbeingsortothemselves.
Bytheallurementofpleasuretheypreservetheindividual,andbythesameallurementtheypreservetheirspecies.Theyhavenaturallaws,becausetheyareunitedbysensation;positivelawstheyhavenone,becausetheyarenotconnectedbyknowledge.Andyettheydonotinvariablyconformtotheirnaturallaws;thesearebetterobservedbyvegetables,thathaveneitherunderstandingnorsense.
Brutesaredeprivedofthehighadvantageswhichwehave;buttheyhavesomewhichwehavenot.Theyhavenotourhopes,buttheyarewithoutourfears;theyaresubjectlikeustodeath,butwithoutknowingit;evenmostofthemaremoreattentivethanwetoself-preservation,anddonotmakesobadauseoftheirpassions.
Man,asaphysicalbeing,islikeotherbodiesgovernedbyinvariablelaws.Asanintelligentbeing,heincessantlytransgressesthelawsestablishedbyGod,andchangesthoseofhisowninstituting.Heislefttohisprivatedirection,thoughalimitedbeing,andsubject,likeallfiniteintelligences,toignoranceanderror:evenhisimperfectknowledgeheloses;andasasensiblecreature,heishurriedawaybyathousandimpetuouspassions.SuchabeingmighteveryinstantforgethisCreator;Godhasthereforeremindedhimofhisdutybythelawsofreligion.Suchabeingisliableeverymomenttoforgethimself;philosophyhasprovidedagainstthisbythelawsofmorality.Formedtoliveinsociety,hemightforgethisfellow-creatures;legislatorshavethereforebypoliticalandcivillawsconfinedhimtohisduty.
2.OftheLawsofNature.Antecedenttotheabove-mentionedlawsarethoseofnature,socalled,becausetheyderivetheirforceentirelyfromourframeandexistence.Inordertohaveaperfectknowledgeoftheselaws,wemustconsidermanbeforetheestablishmentofsociety:thelawsreceivedinsuchastatewouldbethoseofnature.
Thelawwhich,impressingonourmindstheideaofaCreator,inclinesustowardsHim,isthefirstinimportance,thoughnotinorder,ofnaturallaws.Maninastateofnaturewouldhavethefacultyofknowing,beforehehadacquiredanyknowledge.Plainitisthathisfirstideaswouldnotbeofaspeculativenature;hewouldthinkofthepreservationofhisbeing,beforehewouldinvestigateitsorigin.Suchamanwouldfeelnothinginhimselfatfirstbutimpotencyandweakness;hisfearsandapprehensionswouldbeexcessive;asappearsfrominstances（werethereanynecessityofprovingit）ofsavagesfoundinforests,2tremblingatthemotionofaleaf,andflyingfromeveryshadow.
Inthisstateeveryman,insteadofbeingsensibleofhisequality,wouldfancyhimselfinferior.Therewouldthereforebenodangeroftheirattackingoneanother;peacewouldbethefirstlawofnature.
ThenaturalimpulseordesirewhichHobbesattributestomankindofsubduingoneanotherisfarfrombeingwellfounded.Theideaofempireanddominionissocomplex,anddependsonsomanyothernotions,thatitcouldneverbethefirstwhichoccurredtothehumanunderstanding.
Hobbes3inquires,"Forwhatreasongomenarmed,andhavelocksandkeystofastentheirdoors,iftheybenotnaturallyinastateofwar"Butisitnotobviousthatheattributestomankindbeforetheestablishmentofsocietywhatcanhappenbutinconsequenceofthisestablishment,whichfurnishesthemwithmotivesforhostileattacksandself-defence
Nexttoasenseofhisweaknessmanwouldsoonfindthatofhiswants.Henceanotherlawofnaturewouldprompthimtoseekfornourishment.
Fear,Ihaveobserved,wouldinducementoshunoneanother;butthemarksofthisfearbeingreciprocal,wouldsoonengagethemtoassociate.Besides,thisassociationwouldquicklyfollowfrom.theverypleasureoneanimalfeelsattheapproachofanotherofthesamespecies.Again,theattractionarisingfromthedifferenceofsexeswouldenhancethispleasure,andthenaturalinclinationtheyhaveforeachotherwouldformathirdlaw.
Besidethesenseorinstinctwhichmanpossessesincommonwithbrutes,hehastheadvantageofacquiredknowledge;andthencearisesasecondtie,whichbruteshavenot.Mankindhavethereforeanewmotiveofuniting;andafourthlawofnatureresultsfromthedesireoflivinginsociety.
3.OfPositiveLaws.Assoonasmanentersintoastateofsocietyhelosesthesenseofhisweakness;equalityceases,andthencommencesthestateofwar.
Eachparticularsocietybeginstofeelitsstrength,whencearisesastateofwarbetweendifferentnations.Theindividualslikewiseofeachsocietybecomesensibleoftheirforce;hencetheprincipaladvantagesofthissocietytheyendeavourtoconverttotheirownemolument,whichconstitutesastateofwarbetweenindividuals.
Thesetwodifferentkindsofstatesgiverisetohumanlaws.Consideredasinhabitantsofsogreataplanet,whichnecessarilycontainsavarietyofnations,theyhavelawsrelatingtotheirmutualintercourse,whichiswhatwecallthelawofnations.Asmembersofasocietythatmustbeproperlysupported,theyhavelawsrelatingtothegovernorsandthegoverned,andthiswedistinguishbythenameofpoliticlaw.Theyhavealsoanothersortoflaw,astheystandinrelationtoeachother;bywhichisunderstoodthecivillaw.
Thelawofnationsisnaturallyfoundedonthisprinciple,thatdifferentnationsoughtintimeofpeacetodooneanotherallthegoodtheycan,andintimeofwaraslittleinjuryaspossible,withoutprejudicingtheirrealinterests.
Theobjectofwarisvictory;thatofvictoryisconquest;andthatofconquestpreservation.Fromthisandtheprecedingprincipleallthoserulesarederivedwhichconstitutethelawofnations.
Allcountrieshavealawofnations,notexceptingtheIroquoisthemselves,thoughtheydevourtheirprisoners:fortheysendandreceiveambassadors,andunderstandtherightsofwarandpeace.Themischiefisthattheirlawofnationsisnotfoundedontrueprinciples.
Besidesthelawofnationsrelatingtoallsocieties,thereisapolityorcivilconstitutionforeachparticularlyconsidered.Nosocietycansubsistwithoutaformofgovernment."Theunitedstrengthofindividuals,"asGravina4wellobserves,"constituteswhatwecallthebodypolitic."
Thegeneralstrengthmaybeinthehandsofasingleperson,orofmany.Somethinkthatnaturehavingestablishedpaternalauthority,themostnaturalgovernmentwasthatofasingleperson.Buttheexampleofpaternalauthorityprovesnothing.Forifthepowerofafatherrelatestoasinglegovernment,thatofbrothersafterthedeathofafather,andthatofcousins-germanafterthedeceaseofbrothers,refertoagovernmentofmany.Thepoliticalpowernecessarilycomprehendstheunionofseveralfamilies.
Betterisittosay,thatthegovernmentmostconformabletonatureisthatwhichbestagreeswiththehumouranddispositionofthepeopleinwhosefavouritisestablished.
Thestrengthofindividualscannotbeunitedwithoutaconjunctionofalltheirwills."Theconjunctionofthosewills,"asGravinaagainveryjustlyobserves,"iswhatwecallthecivilstate."
Lawingeneralishumanreason,inasmuchasitgovernsalltheinhabitantsoftheearth:thepoliticalandcivillawsofeachnationoughttobeonlytheparticularcasesinwhichhumanreasonisapplied.
Theyshouldbeadaptedinsuchamannertothepeopleforwhomtheyareframedthatitshouldbeagreatchanceifthoseofonenationsuitanother.
Theyshouldbeinrelationtothenatureandprincipleofeachgovernment;whethertheyformit,asmaybesaidofpoliticlaws;orwhethertheysupportit,asinthecaseofcivilinstitutions.
Theyshouldbeinrelationtotheclimateofeachcountry,tothequalityofitssoil,toitssituationandextent,totheprincipaloccupationofthenatives,whetherhusbandmen,huntsmen,orshepherds:theyshouldhaverelationtothedegreeoflibertywhichtheconstitutionwillbear;tothereligionoftheinhabitants,totheirinclinations,riches,numbers,commerce,manners,andcustoms.Infine,theyhaverelationstoeachother,asalsototheirorigin,totheintentofthelegislator,andtotheorderofthingsonwhichtheyareestablished;inallofwhichdifferentlightstheyoughttobeconsidered.
ThisiswhatIhaveundertakentoperforminthefollowingwork.TheserelationsIshallexamine,sinceallthesetogetherconstitutewhatIcalltheSpiritofLaws.
Ihavenotseparatedthepoliticalfromthecivilinstitutions,asIdonotpretendtotreatoflaws,butoftheirspirit;andasthisspiritconsistsinthevariousrelationswhichthelawsmaybeartodifferentobjects,itisnotsomuchmybusinesstofollowthenaturalorderoflawsasthatoftheserelationsandobjects.
Ishallfirstexaminetherelationswhichlawsbeartothenatureandprincipleofeachgovernment;andasthisprinciplehasastronginfluenceonlaws,Ishallmakeitmystudytounderstanditthoroughly:andifIcanbutonceestablishit,thelawswillsoonappeartoflowthenceasfromtheirsource.Ishallproceedafterwardstootherandmoreparticularrelations.
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1."Law,"saysPlutarch,"isthekingofmortalandimmortalbeings."Seehistreatise,ADiscoursetoanUnlearnedPrince.
2.WitnessthesavagefoundintheforestsofHanover,whowascarriedovertoEnglandduringthereignofGeorgeI.