Foreign-bornpersonswhohavenotbeennaturalizedtobecomeU.S.citizensunderfederallawandtheConstitution.
Thefederalimmigrationlawsdeterminewhetherapersonisanalien.Generally,apersonborninaforeigncountryisanalien,butachildborninaforeignnationtoparentswhoareU.S.citizensisaU.S.citizen.Thetermalienalsoreferstoanative-bornU.S.citizenwhohasrelinquishedU.S.citizenshipbylivingandacquiringcitizenshipinanothercountry.Aliensarecategorizedinseveralways:residentandnonresident,immigrantandnonimmigrant,documentedandundocumented("illegal").
TheUnitedStateswelcomesalargenumberofalienseveryyear.Millionsofforeign-bornpersonstravel,work,andstudyinthecountry,andhundredsofthousandsmorechoosetoimmigrateandbecomeU.S.citizens.Allofthemaresubjecttofederalimmigrationlaw.Atthesimplestlevel,thelawservesasagatekeeperforthenation'sborders:itdetermineswhomayenter,howlongtheymaystay,andwhentheymustleave.Intotality,ofcourse,itsscopefarexceedsthissimplepurpose.Immigrationlawisconcernednotonlywithbordersbutwithwhatgoesoninsidethem.Ithasmuchtosayaboutthelegalrights,duties,andobligationsofaliensintheUnitedStates,which,insomerespects,aredifferentfromthoseofcitizens.Ultimately,italsoprovidesthemeansbywhichcertainaliensarenaturalizedasnewcitizenswithalltherightsofcitizenship.
Congresshastotalauthorityoverimmigration.Inthelegislativebranchofgovernment,thispowerhasnoequal.TheU.S.Supreme
Priorto2001,allegedterroristattacksontheUnitedStatesoronU.S.propertyincludedthe1993bombingoftheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity;the1995bombingoftheMurrahFederalBuildinginOklahomaCity;the1998bombingsofU.S.embassiesinKenyaandTanzania;the1999rocketshellingofU.S.buildingsinIslamabad,Pakistan;andthe2000attackontheU.S.S.Cole.MostlyinresponsetotheOklahomabombing,Congressin1996passedtheAntiterrorismandEffectiveDeathPenaltyAct(AEDPA),P.L.104-132(codifiedinscatteredsectionsof18U.S.C.),andtheIllegalImmigrationandReformandImmigrationResponsibilityAct(IIRIRA),P.L.104-208(codifiedasamendedat8U.S.C.1101).TheAEDPAamendedimmigrationlawsandstreamlineddeportationproceduresforalienschargedwithterrorism.
Beforetheseactswerepassed,excludablealiens(thosewhoserighttoentertheUnitedStateswasquestionedbytheImmigrationandNaturalizationService[INS]priortoentry)weredistinguishedfromdeportablealiens(thosewhoseentryintotheUnitedStateswasfoundtobeillegal,orwhoserighttostayintheUnitedStateshadterminated),anddifferentcorrelativerightswereattachedtoeach.Thatdistinctioncloselyparalleledthetermsofdistinctionbetweennonimmigrantaliensandillegalaliens.However,theAEDPAandIIRIRAmuddiedthosedistinctions,grantingpowertoactagainstbothillegalandimmigrantalienswhofellundertheacts'criteria.
Nonetheless,theU.S.SupremeCourt,inRenov.ArabAnti-discriminationCommittee,525U.S.471,119S.Ct.936,142L.Ed.2d.940(US1999),allowedthechallengedAEDPAtostand.TheCourtagainconfrontedAEDPAissuesinZadvydasv.Davis,533U.S.678,121S.Ct.249,150L.Ed.2d.653(US2001),whereanarrowmajorityruledthatdeportablealienswithcriminalrecordscouldnotbedetainedindefinitelywhentheircountriesofnationalityrefusedtheirreturn.ThedecisionreaffirmedthatDueProcessClauseprotectionsstillexistedforthisnarrowlydefinedclassofpersonswhofaceddeportation.
InthewakeoftheSeptember2001attacks,Congresspassedtheall-encompassingusapatriotact(formally,theUnitingandStrengtheningAmericabyProvidingAppropriateToolsRequiredtoInterceptandObstructTerrorismAct),H.R.3162(October2001).Theact,liketheAEDPA,affectsandamendsseveralotherprovisionsintheU.S.Code.Over100pageslong,theactcontainsover150sectionsundertentitles.Ofsignificancetoaliens,Section412oftheactprovidesformandatorydetentionofsuspectedaliens.Aliensaresuspectundertheactforanyofsevenenumeratedcausesfordetention.Further,certainaliensmaybeheldforsevendayswithoutbeingchargedandmightpossiblybedetainedindefinitelyifdeemednotremovable.Thesectionprovidesforlimitedjudicialreviewofsuchdetentions.
Anotherkeyprovisionoftheactwastheimplementationofanelectronictrackingsystemaffectingforeignstudents.Italsobeganintensereviewofvisaapplicationsofscientists,engineers,andstudentsintechnicalfields.Manyforeignstudentsacceptedintoscientificoracademicprogramswereultimatelydeniedvisas.ThePatriotActalsoprohibitedillegalaliens,amongothers,fromhavingaccessto"selectagents"thatcouldbeusedforharmfulpurposes.
Followingthereleaseofinformationthatsevenofthe19terroristswhoboardedplanesonSeptember11,2001,helddrivers'licensesfromtheCommonwealthofVirginia(althoughtheywereillegalaliens),manystatesbeganenactinglawstolimittheissuanceofdrivers'licensestothosealienswhoseimmigrationstatuswaslegal.Approximately12stateshadsimilarlawsbytheendof2002(California,Colorado,Florida,Iowa,Kentucky,Louisiana,Minnesota,NewJersey,Ohio,Pennsylvania,SouthCarolina,andVirginia).
InJune2003,anofficialU.S.JusticeDepartmentreportfromitsinspectorgeneralwascriticalofthedetainmentofseveralaliensinthewakeoftheSeptember2001attacks.The198-pagereportcitedmajordelaysininformingthedetaineesofthereasonsfortheirdetentionandcriticizedtheunwritten"nobond"policyofdetention.Thereportalsomentionedharshconditionsofconfinementandinstancesofverbalandphysicalabuse.
"ArabAmericans,CivilRightsLeadersCriticizeDeportationInitiative."2002.PressRelease.KnightRidderWashingtonBureau.
"BeingontheFrontLinesAgainstTerrorism."2003.NationalLawJournal25.
Cohen,Adam.2002."Immigration."Time158,159.
"LicensesDenotingNoncitizensCriticized."2002.StateGovernmentNews45.
Martin,DavidA.2001."GraduatedApplicationofConstitutionalProtectionsforAliens:TheRealMeaningofZadvydasv.Davis."SupremeCourtReview.
Mukerjee,Madhusree.2003."BoxedOut."ScientificAmerican288.
Ross,SusanDente.2001."IntheShadowofTerror:TheIllusiveFirstAmendmentRightsofAliens."Comm.LawandPolicy6.
UndertheHomelandSecurityAct,anumberofnewagencieswerecreatedtocarryoutseveralotherfunctions.ManyoftheresponsibilitiesforpreventingentryofterroristsintotheUnitedStates,carryingoutimmigrationenforcementfunctions,andotherissuesrelatingtotheprotectionofU.S.bordersweredelegatedtotheUndersecretaryforBorderandTransportationServices.OtherenforcementpowersweregiventotheBureauofBorderSecurityEnforcement,whichisresponsibleforthedetention,investigation,andinspectionofaliensunderfederallaw.
Normally,alienswishingtoentertheUnitedStatesfirstapplyforavisaatoneoftheovertwohundredU.S.consulatesandembassiesabroad.Visasaredocumentsrequiredfortraveltomostnationsintheworld.Forexample,U.S.citizensmaynotsimplycrossthebordersofGermanyorZairewithoutavisa.Aliens,likewise,maynotsimplycrossthebordersintotheUnitedStates;theyhavenoinherentrighttoenterthecountry.Avisaistheonlylegalmeansofentry.Inalargersense,itisthekeytounderstandingthegoalsandpracticesofimmigrationlaw.
Twotypesofvisasexist:immigrantvisasandnonimmigrantvisas.Itismucheasiertoobtainnonimmigrantvisas,whichareprimarilyissuedtotouristsandtemporarybusinessvisitors.In1993,theINSadmitted21,447,000nonimmigrantstotheUnitedStates.Nonimmigrantvisasaredividedintoeighteenmaincategoriesrangingfromvacationersanddiplomaticpersonneltoathletes,temporaryworkers,andstudents.Mostcategoriesdonothaveanynumericallimitation.Thereasoningissimple:nonimmigrantsgenerallyspendashorttimeandalotofmoneyintheUnitedStates,withobviousbenefitsforthenation'seconomic,social,andculturallife,andrelativelyfewdemandsonitsresources.ThemostsignificantissueinnonimmigrantvisasiswhetherthealienmayworkintheUnitedStateswithoutviolatingthetermsofthevisa.
Inlaw,aliensgrantedvisasaresaidtohaveobtainedentry.Thetermentryhasaspecialmeaningthatisdifferentfromamere"physicalpresenceintheUnitedStates."Analienmightcrosstheborderbutstillbedeterminedbyauthoritiesnottohaveenteredthecountry.Entrymeanslegaladmittanceandthefreedomfromofficialrestraint.Itsbenefitsaretangible:generally,aliensrecognizedbylawtohavegainedentryhavemorerightsthanthosewhohavenotgainedentry.
Welfareisajumping-offpointforabroaderattackonfederalimmigrationlaw.Ifwelfareisamistakenpolicy,itfollowsthatanyimmigrationpolicythatcreatesnewdependentsisitselfflawed.
Sharperattacksonthereformerscamefromthepoliticalleft.In1993,theNewLeftReviewdefendedimmigrationbyblastingpublicselfishnessintheformof"thefiscalconstraintsonpublicspendingimposedbyconservative,suburbanvoters."Insteadofrestrictingimmigration,theProgressivemagazineurgedPresidentClintonto"trytoeasetheeconomicdeprivationsandpoliticalpersecutionstheUnitedStateshasfosteredaroundtheglobe,whichthemselveshavepropelledmuchoftheimmigrationtothiscountry."
Thisdebatesetthestageforthechangesinwelfareforlegalimmigrantsthatweremadeinthe1990s.ThereformeffortsbeganinCalifornia:in1994,nearlytwo-thirdsofthestate'svoterspassedProposition187(CAProp.187[1994],1994Cal.Legis.Serv.Prop.187[WEST]),alawintendedtodenyeducationandpublicassistancetoillegalaliens.ThebiggestappealofProposition187wassavingtaxdollars.ConcernsaboutheavystateexpenditurespromptedCaliforniaandFloridatobringunsuccessfullawsuitsintheearly1990s,demandingreimbursementfromthefederalgovernment,allegingthatthefederalfailuretoenforceimmigrationlawshadsaddledthestateswithincredibledebts.Althoughthepropositionwasnotaimedatlegalimmigrants,itssuccesswithvoterspromptedsomeobserverstoregarditasasymptomofincreasingintolerancetowardimmigrationingeneral.However,afederaldistrictcourtdecisionin1995,LeagueofUnitedLatinAmericanCitizensv.Wilson,908F.Supp.755,C.D.Cal(1995),preventeditfromgoingintoeffect,byrulingthatmostofthelawwaspreemptedbyfederalimmigrationlaw.
Asaresult,Congressmodifiedsomeoftheharsheraspectsofthelaw.AspartoftheBalancedBudgetActof1997,thelawrestoredSSItothoseimmigrantswhowerereceivingSSIasofAugust22,1996.ItalsoallowedimmigrantsresidingintheUnitedStatesonAugust22,1996,tobeeligibleforSSIiftheybecamedisabledinthefuture.NewimmigrantswerestillnoteligibleforSSI,norwouldearlierimmigrantsbeeligibleinthefuturebasedontheirage.
Then,in1998,CongressdecidedtopartiallyrestorefoodstampsbyreinstatingeligibilityforlegalimmigrantchildrenandelderlypersonswhowerelegalimmigrantsasofAugust22,1996.Thisactionreadmittedapproximately250,000immigrantswhowereexcludedunderthe1996law.Inaddition,somestates,suchasWashington,haveattemptedtorestoreatleastpartialfoodstampbenefitstoimmigrantswhowerenotcoveredbythe1998legislation.
Camarota,StevenA.2003."BackWhereWeStarted:AnExaminationofTrendsinImmigrantWelfareUsesinceWelfareReform."CenterforImmigrationStudies(March).
Dodson,MarvinE.2001."WelfareGenerosityandLocationChoicesamongUnitedStatesImmigrants."InternationalReviewofLawandEconomics21(March).
McCurdy,Thomas,andMargaretO'Brien-Strain.1998."ReformReversedTheRestorationofWelfareBenefitstoImmigrantsinCalifornia."PublicPolicyInstituteofCalifornia.
Denialofentryiscalledexclusion.Datingfromtheearliestattemptstocontrolimmigration,thiscontroversialconceptholdsthatitisnotinthenationalinteresttoadmitsomepersons.Far-reachinggroundsbarapplicantsforreasonsrelatedtohealth,crime,nationalsecurity,andothervariables.Aspartoftheprocessforreviewingvisaapplications,consularofficialsdecidewhetheranygroundforexclusionapplies.Iftheofficialsdecidethatnonedoes,avisamaybegranted,butentryisstillnotcertain.TheBureauofBorderSecurityEnforcementcandecideotherwisewhenthealienactuallyattemptstocrosstheborder.Inpractice,exclusionoccurseveryday.
Eachapplicantforanonimmigrantvisamustdemonstratethatsheorhehasnointentionofimmigrating.Generally,theapplicationrequiresdetailedinformationaboutthealien'snativeresidence,placeofemployment,reasonfortravelingtotheUnitedStates,anddestination.Mostnon-immigrantvisasdonothaveannualnumericallimits,buttheINAdoesrestrictthoseforprofessionalsto65,000;temporaryagriculturalwork-ersto66,000;andperformingathletes,artists,andentertainersto25,000.
Nonimmigrantaliensapplyforavisafromoneof18categories,eachassignedaletter,asfollows:
A.Careerdiplomats;
B.Temporaryvisitorsforbusinessandpleasure;
C.Aliensintransit;
D.Crewmembers;
E.Treatytradersandinvestors;
F.Students;
G.Internationalorganizationrepresentatives;
H.Temporaryworkers;
I.Foreignmediarepresentatives;
J.Exchangeprogramvisitors;
L.Intracompanytransferees;
M.Studentsinnonacademicinstitutions;
N.Parentsandchildrenofspecialimmigrants;
O.Alienswithextraordinaryabilities;
P.Entertainers;
Q.Participantsinculturalexchangeprograms;
OnceadmittedintotheUnitedStates,aliensareinspectedbyBureauofBorderSecurityEnforcementofficers,whogivethemaformI-94indicatingthelengthandtermsoftheirstay.Mostaliensultimatelyreturntotheircountryoforigin.Somewishtostayandimmigrate.Generally,allnonimmigrantvisaholderswhoareintheUnitedStatesmayapplytohavetheirvisastatusadjustedtopermanent-residentstatus,withtheexceptionofcrewmembervisa(visaD)holders.Toqualify,thealienmusthavebeeninspectedandadmittedorparoledintotheUnitedStatesandmustmeetstandardeligibilityrequirementsforobtaininganimmigrantvisa,andanimmigrantvisamustbeimmediatelyavailableatthetimetheapplicationisfiled.Inaddition,thealienmustnothavebeeninanunlawfulstatusor,withfewexceptions,haveacceptedanyunauthorizedemployment.
Thoughhavingnonumericallimitationmakesiteasiertoobtain,theimmediate-relativevisastillcarriesstrictlimitations.Generally,thetermimmediaterelativesmeanschildren,spouses,andparents,butuniquerulesapplytochildrenandspouses.Toqualifyasachild,thepersonmustbeunmarriedandunder21yearsofage.Thelawisalsoconcernedwithhowtheparentcametohavethechild,anditappliesspecialagerestrictionstolegitimateandillegitimatechildren,stepchildren,adoptedchildren,andorphans.SpousesofU.S.citizensmustpassthemostdemandingtests.Thelawrequiresthealientohavea"validandsubsistingmarriage"withthecitizenunderthelawsofthecountrywherethemarriagetookplaceandconsidersawidevarietyofmarriagesinsufficientforgrantingthevisa.Thisseverityisananswertothecommonabuseofmarriagetoobtaincitizenship.TheImmigrationMarriageFraudAmendmentsof1986imposecriminalpenaltiesforviolations.TheFraudAmendmentsalsoimposeatwo-yearconditionalresidencyrequirementbeforealienspousesandtheirsonsanddaughtersmaypetitionforpermanent-residentstatus.
Threecategoriesexistforvisassubjecttonumericallimitation:familysponsored,employmentrelated,andso-calleddiversityimmigration.ThelastisaspecialcategorycreatedtoreversethedrasticreductionsinimmigrationfromEuropeancountries,particularlyIreland.Effectiveafter1995,aformulawasusedtodeterminewhetherinthepreviousfiveyearsacountryhadbeen"underrepresented."Ifso,analienfromthatcountryiseligibleforoneof55,000visasannuallyallocatedtodiversityimmigrants.Aliensmayapplyonceayearinalottery,makingthisahighlyuncertainwaytoobtainavisa.Noteveryoneiseligible;applicantsmustgenerallyhaveahighschooleducationandtwoyearsofworkexperience.DifferentgoalsmakemorevisasavailabletoHongKong:becauseofuncertaintyoverthetransferofthecountrytoChina,thelawallotted20,000visasannuallytocertainHongKongcitizenswhowereemployeesofU.S.businesses,theirspouses,andtheirchildren.
Preferenceinfamily-sponsoredvisasisdecidedbythenatureofanalien'srelationshiptothepetitioner:
Firstpreference:UnmarriedsonsanddaughtersofU.S.citizens,whoaretoooldtoqualify(age21orolder)forthenonnumericallylimitedimmediate-relativevisa:23,400visasplusanyunusedvisasfromtheotherfamily-sponsoredpreferenceclasses.
Secondpreference:Spouses,children,andunmarriedsonsanddaughtersofalienswhoarelawfulpermanentresidents:minimumof114,200visas.Spousesandchildrenareallocated77percentofthevisas;unmarriedsonsanddaughters(atleast21yearsold),23percent.
Thirdpreference:MarriedsonsanddaughtersofU.S.citizens:23,400plusanyunusedvisasfromthefirst-andsecond-preferenceclasses.Fourthpreference:BrothersandsistersofU.S.citizens,ifthecitizenisatleast21yearsold:65,000plusanyunusedvisasfromthethreehigherclasses.
Employment-relatedpreferencesarenotbasedonanyfamilialrelationship.Theyfocusoneducationalattainmentandstressoccupationsthatarehighlyspecialized.Theirlevelsaresetaspercentagesoftheworldwidemaximumof140,000.
Firstpreference:Priorityworkersareallotted28.6percent.Thesearepersonsof"extraordinaryability"inthesciences,arts,education,business,orathletics;outstandingprofessorsandresearchers;andmultinationalexecutivesandmanagers.
Secondpreference:Professionalsholdingadvanceddegreesorpersonsofexceptionalabilityinthesciences,arts,orbusinessareallotted28.6percent.
Thirdpreference:Skilledworkersinshortsupply,professionalsholdingbaccalaureatedegrees,andotherworkersinshortsupplyareallotted28.6percent.
Fourthpreference:Certainspecialimmigrants:7.1percent.Thesearemainlyreligiousworkers,aswellasformeremployeesoftheU.S.governmentandinternationalorganizations.
Fifthpreference:Employmentcreationimmigrantsareallotted7.1percent.TheseareinvestorswhowillcreateatleasttenU.S.jobsbyinvestinginanewcommercialenterprisebenefitingtheU.S.economy,especiallyinareasoflowemployment.Generally,theminimumrequiredinvestmentis$1million.
Afterapprovalofthelaborcertificationorpreferencepetition,orboth,theactualvisaapplicationprocessbeginsforanalienwhoresidesoutsidetheUnitedStates.ThisprocesstakesplaceattheappropriateU.S.consulate,whereauthoritytoapproveordenyanapplicationbelongsexclusivelytoconsularofficials.Ifeligible,thealienmustsubmitconsiderabledocumentation.Therequireddocumentsincludebiographicalreports;police,court,prison,andmilitaryrecords;birthandmarriagecertificates;passports;photographs;andevidencethatthealienwillnotbecomeapublicchargewhileintheUnitedStates.Thealiengivestheconsulthesedocumentsandtheresultsofamedicalexamination.Ifallisinorder,theapplicantsignsaformalapplicationunderoath.
OncetheimmigrantactuallyarrivesintheUnitedStates,animmigrationofficeragainindependentlyexaminesthealien'svisaeligibility.Thisofficermayexcludethealieninspiteofthevisa.Inthatcase,thealienmaybetemporarilydetained,eitheraboardthevesselofarrivalorintheUnitedStatespendingaruling.Iftheofficerfindsthevisainorderandadmitsthealien,thevisaisretainedbytheBCISasapermanentrecordofadmission.ThealienisthenissuedaformI-151,commonlyknownasagreencard(eventhoughitscolorisnowoff-white),andbecomesapermanent-residentalien.Althoughitismostoftenthoughtofasanemploymentpermit,thegreencardwasoriginallydesignedtoserveasevidenceofthealien'sstatusasapermanentresidentoftheUnitedStates.
AlthoughtheSupremeCourthasheldthatCongressalonemakesimmigrationlaw,historically,stateshaveplacedharshrestrictionsonaliens.In1886,theSupremeCourtstruckdownaSanFranciscoordinanceeffectivelybanningChineselaundries,inthelandmarkcaseyickwov.hopkins,118U.S.356,6S.Ct.1064,30L.Ed.220.YickWoestablishedthattheFourteenthAmendment'sEqualProtectionClauseappliedtoaliens.Butstatessimplyignoredit,and,fordecades,theSupremeCourtfoundnumerouswaystoupholddiscriminatoryrestrictions.
Fivemajorbroadcategoriesofgroundsfordeportationcover(1)beingexcludableatthetimeofentryoradjustmentofstatus;(2)committingcriminaloffenses;(3)failingtoregisterandfalsifyingdocuments;(4)posingasecurityriskandrelatedgrounds;and(5)becomingapublicchargeofthestate.Manymoregroundsfordeportationfollowfromthese;thefirstcategoryaloneestablishesnineclassesofaliensexcludableatthetimeofentry.SincetheTechnicalAmendmentsActof1991,thesegroundshaveexpandedwiththeadditionofattemptingorconspiringtocommitacrime.Deportationisfar-reachinginadditionalways:frequently,theBCISappliesthestatutesretroactively,sothataliensmaybedeportedforconductthatwasnotagroundfordeportationatthetimetheycommittedtheact.ManyoftheprovisionsalsodependonwhenthealienenteredtheUnitedStates,andstillothersmakealiensdeportableforactstheycommittedpriortoentry.
DeportationoftencausestheU.S.citizenchildrenofalienstoleavetheUnitedStates.Thesechildrenarenottechnicallydeportedandmayultimatelychoosetoreturn.
Aliensgenerallywanttoavoiddeportationatallcosts.Evenifanimmigrationjudgerulesthatanalienisdeportable,thealienmaystillfightthedeportationorder.Thisiscalledseekingrelieffromdeportation.Broadlyspeaking,twokindsofoptionsexist:filinganappealandseeking"discretionary"relief.Whichevermethodthealienchooses,timeisoftheessence.SheorheusuallymustseekreliefbeforetheBCISbeginsexecutingthedeportationorder.
Appealsfromdeportationrulingsoperateonthreelevels.First,thealien'sattorneymayfileamotiontoreopenthecase,alsocalledamotiontoreconsider.Itisusedchieflytopresentnewevidence,andstrictrulesgovernitsusage.Courtsfrownonsuchmotionsbecauseofthepotentialforunnecessarilydelayingdeportation,andthejudgemaydenythemotionifthealienhaspreviouslyfailedtoestablishasufficientcase.Inanyevent,themotionwillnotstopapendingdeportationorder.Second,aliensmaygotothehigherauthorityoftheBoardofImmigrationAppeals(BIA).Filingaso-calledadministrativeappealwiththeBIAautomaticallydelaystheexecutionofapendingdeportationorder.TheBIAdecisiontoupholdthedeportationorder,throwitout,orsendthecasebacktotheimmigrationjudgeisfinal.Withinsixmonths,however,thealienmayappealadecisionoftheBIAtoafederalcourtforjudicialreview.Courtsmayhearthecaseiftherehavebeenviolationsofthealien'sconstitutionalrights.
Asthenameimplies,discretionaryreliefisgrantedatthediscretionofajudge.Ifgranted,itwilleliminateorpostponetheexecutionofadeportationorder.Generally,thealienmustapplyfordiscretionaryreliefduringthedeportationhearing,althoughsomeformsofreliefmaybesoughtbeforethehearingbegins.Inatwo-partprocess,thejudgefirstdetermineswhetherthealieniseligibleunderstatutoryrequirementsandthenatthejudge'sdiscretiondecideswhethertograntit.Mereeligibilityisnotaguaranteeofrelief.
Asylum,availableonlytoalienswhoqualifyasrefugees,differsfromotherformsofdiscretionaryrelief.First,itdoesnotguaranteeanalienpermanentresidencebutmerelygrantstherighttoresideandworkintheUnitedStatestemporarily,foraslongasthealienisentitledtorefugeestatus.UndertheINA,arefugeeisanalienunwillingorunabletoreturntoherorhisnationbecauseofawell-foundedfearofpersecutiononthegroundofrace,religion,nationality,membershipinaparticularsocialgroup,orpoliticalopinion,oranalienwhosenationalityhasbeengivenrefugeestatusbythepresidentoftheUnitedStates.Asylummaybesoughtatanytimeduringadeportationorexclusionhearingandcansometimesleadwithinoneyeartothegrantingofpermanentresidence.
Closelyrelatedtoasylumiswithholdingofdeportation.Althoughthegroundsforwithholdingaresimilartothoseforasylum,thisformofreliefmayonlybesoughtduringadeportationhearing,anditsdurationisalwaystemporary.Aliensgrantedasylumorwithholdingofdeportationmayqualifyforadjustmentofstatusandtherebybecomelawfulpermanentresidentsorcitizens.
Finally,afewkindsofdiscretionaryreliefareusedinexceptionalcircumstances.Astayofdeportationisatemporaryholdonadeportationorder,commonlyusedinconnectionwithamotiontoreopenacaseorpendinganapplicationforpermanentresidence.Registry,availableonlytoalienswhoenteredtheUnitedStatesbeforeJanuary1,1972,isusedtocreatealawfulrecordofadmissionwhennorecordisavailable.Furtherreliefincludesdeferredactionstatus,anonstatutoryguidelinecontainedwithinBCISinstructionstodistrictdirectors;itamountstoanindefiniteholdonanydeportationactionbasedonsympatheticfactors.Rarelyusedisestoppel,inwhichcourtsstopdeportationordersbecauseofgovernmentmisconduct.
SincetheSeptember11thattacks,reformsintheimmigrationsystemhavesoughttoaccomplishtwobroad,yetcompeting,goals.Ontheonehand,manyofthenewlawsrelatingtoalienshavesoughttoacceleratetheprocessespertainingtothecitizenshipandnaturalizationbenefits.TheformerINSwasheavilycriticizedforitsinefficiencyincarryingouttheprovisionsoftheIRA,andthenewagenciesthatreplacedtheINShavebeenchargedwiththeresponsibilityofimprovingthissystem.
Cole,David.1999."SupremeCourtDeniesFirstAmendmentRightstoLegalAliens."LegalTimes21(March):19.
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ImmigrationLegalResourceCenter.2001.AGuideforImmigrationAdvocates.SanFrancisco:ImmigrantLegalResourceCenter.
McWhirter,RobertJames.2001.TheCriminalLawyer'sGuidetoImmigrationLaw:QuestionsandAnswers.Chicago:AmericanBarAssociation.
Raskin,JaminB.1993."LegalAliens,LocalCitizens:TheHistorical,ConstitutionalandTheoreticalMeaningsofAlienSuffrage."UniversityofPennsylvaniaLawReview141(April):1391-1470.
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