1、法律英语讲座法律英语讲座pptCONTRACTLAWThelawofcontracthasitidentityfirmlyinplaceintheUK.ContractlawfirstcameaboutinthethirteenthcenturyandmostofthedevelopedwesternworldderivesitslawsinvolvingcontractfromtheBritishsystem.HongKong,Malaysia,Pak-istan,IndiaandnowChina
2、alluseBritishLawofContract.ContractlawisbasedontheprincipalofPRECEDENTWhatisPRECEDENTTheeighteenthcenturyisknownasthegoldenyearsofcon-tractasitiswherethecontractasweknowitderivesfrom.1DEFINITION:Anagreement,givingrisetoobligationswhichareenforcedo
3、rrecognizedbylaw.Thefactorwhichdistinguishescontractualfromotherlegalobligationsisthattheyarebasedontheagre-ementofthecontractingparties.Acontractariseswhenthereisintentionby2ormorepeopletoenterintoanagreement.LordDenning:GibsonvManchesterCityCouncil1
4、979AllER972Lookatthecorrespondenceasawholeandattheconductofthepartiesandseetherefromwhetherthepartieshavecometoanagreementoneverythingthatwasmaterial.2WHATISTHISSubjectiveThisapproachwasrejectedbytheAppealCourtinfavourofthemoretraditionalapproach
5、whichistofindtheobjectiveintentionofthepartieswhentheyenteredintotheagreementbyreducingthecontractinto1)offer2)counteroffer3)acceptance4)revocation5)RejectionLordDiplockinthesamecasewentwiththeabovemethodandrejectedDenningsargument.Diplockseesseparatingeveryt
6、hingintomanageableblocksasaneasywayofobjectivelyfindingoutthetruth.HoweverindifficultcaseswherethismaynotbepossiblethecourtsmaywellacceptDenningsview.3OFFERAnofferanexpressionofawillingnesstocontractoncertaintermsmadewiththeintentionthatabindingagreem
7、entwillexistoncethatofferisaccepted.CarlillvCarbolicSmokeBallCo18922QB484CompanyintroducedasmokeballontothemarketwiththepromisethatTheywouldpay100poundstoanyonewhocontractedinfluenzaafterusingthesmokeball.Theplaintiffusedthesmokeballandthenimmediatel
8、ycaughtinflue-nzaandsuedforthe100pounds.Thedefendantrefutedsayingthatitwasimpossibletomakeanoffertothewholeworld4BowenLJgavethedissentingjudgmentintheAppealCourt.Althoughthecontractisofferedtothewholeworldwhichcouldbeadifficultproposition,thecontract
9、ismadewiththatlimitedportionofthepublicwhocomeforwardandperformtheconditiononthefaithoftheadvertisement.IntheCarlillcasethedefendantstriedtosaythat“theplaintiffhadnotacceptedtheofferthereforetherewasnoconsensusofagreement.”5Againthiswasrejectedbyth
10、ecourtandthesubjecttheoffermayariseintwoways1)bilateral2)unilateralAbilateralofferariseswhereonepartyagreestodosomethingforanotherinreturnforapromisemadebytheofferee.Bothpartiesareagreeingtodosomethinginreturnforapromise.EG:IfApromisestosellhisc
11、arinreturnforBpromisingtopayhim500pounds.ThevastmajorityofoffersarethistypeAunilateralofferwhereonepartypromisestopayfortheactofanot-her.Thatisaconditionalpromise.TheacceptanceoccurswhenthepersondoestheactasinCarlillcase.6INVITATIONTOTREATThemain
12、occurrenceofthisistobefoundingoodsforsale.AreGoodsdisplayedinashopwindoworwithintheshopitselfanofferTheissuebecomesthatwhensomeonewalksintoashoptheyareacceptingabindingoffertobuyOrIsitaninvitationtoaccepttheofferandthecustomertheneitheracce
13、ptsordeclinestheoffer7GeneralRuleFishervBell19611QB394Apricemarkedflickknifewasdisplayedforsaleinashopwindow.Thesellerwasprosecutedunderthe(nowrepealed)OffensiveWeaponsAct1961whichmadeitanoffertooffertosellsuchitemsandwasaquitted.LordParker“It
14、isclearaccordingtotheordinarylawofcontractthatthedisplayofanarticleinashopwindowismerelyaninvitationtotreat.Itisinnosenseanofferforsaletheacceptanceofwhichconstitutesacontract.8TaylorvLaird(1856)1H&N266,25LJex329Thecaptainofashipaccepted
15、acontracttosailacargodowntheNIGERriverbutsailedhalfwaythengaveupandbroughttheshipback.Hethenwantedpaymentforthetimehespent.Thecourtrejectedthisandsaidhehadnotfulfilledthecondi-tionsofthecontractandhadnotcommunicatedthedesiretoreturntheboattot
16、heownerssotherewasnoacceptanceofthenewoffer.9ACCEPTANCEDefinition:Afinalunqualifiedacceptanceasanexpressionofintenttoallthetermsoftheoffer.TaylorvLairdAcceptancemustbeunequivocalandunconditional.10TinnVHoffmanandCo(1873)29LT271BlackburnJ:Whenacontrac
17、tismadebetweentwopartiesthereisapromisemadebyoneinconsiderationofthepromisemadebytheother;thereare2assentingminds.Thereisanexch-angeofpromises.Thepromiseoroffermadeoneachsideinignoranceofthepromiseoroffermadeontheothersidethenneitherofthemcan
18、beconstruedasacceptingtheoffer.11Inthiscase2offerscrossedinthepostXofferstobuyacarfromYfor5000poundsAtthesametimeYofferstosellhiscarfor5000poundsThereforenocontractexistsbecausesubjectivelytheyagreebutobjectivelythereisnoindicationofagreementbe
19、causethecommunicationhasnotbeenacceptedasanoffer.12COMMUNICATIONHolwellSecuritiesLtdvHughes19741WLR155HoughtonJ“Theremustbesomeformofobjectiveorexternalmanifes-tationofacceptancewhichmustbecommunicatedtotheofferor.”Thereforesilencedoesnotconstituteasacc
20、eptanceofanofferinanywayshapeorform.13FelthousevBindley(1982)11CBNS869Basedonanactionintort.DefendantwassellingfarmingstockatauctionforJohnFelthouse.Amanwasinterestedinbuyingahorsebuttherewasmisunderstandingwhetherthepricewasinpoundsorguineas.Hewrot
21、etotheauctioneerstating“IfIhearnomoreaboutitIwillexpectthpricetobeinguineas”TherewasnoreplybutHughesinstructedthatthehorseberemovedfromtheauction.“Silenceisusuallyequivicaqlastoconsentandtheletterdidnotrendertheauctioneersfailuretoreplyunequivoca
22、llysincefailuretoreplytolettersisacommonhumanweakness”14CONSIDERATIONIsoneoftheprincipalingredientsofanenforceablecontract.Definition:Avaluableconsiderationinthesenseofthelaw,mayconsisteitherinsomeright,interest,profitorbenefitaccruingtooneparty,orsome
23、forebearance,detriment,lossorresponsibilitygiven,sufferedorundertakenbyanother.15Thisapproachtodefiningconsiderationdevelopsdeficiencieswhenseenincontractsbasedsolelyonanexchangeofpromises.IfPARTYApromisestobuyacarfromBfor$2000andBonhispartpromisestose
24、llthecartoAfor$2000thereisclearlyabindingcontractwhichcanbeenforcedifonepartyshouldnottocarryon.Untilthedateforperformancearrivesthereisnobenefitordetrimentundertakenbyeitherparty,theconsid-erationwithinthecontractpresentingitselfviatheexchangeofpr
25、omisemadebytheparties.Thedefinitionisthereforemeaninglessinthiscontext.16heapproachtodaycomesfromSirFrederickPollock(1950)inthePrinciplesofContractAnactorforebearanceofoneparty,orthepromisethereof,isthepriceforwhichthepromiseoftheotherisbought,andth
26、epromisethusgivenforvalueisenforceable.ThisdefinitionwasapprovedintheHouseofLords17DunlopPneumaticTyreCoLtdvSelfridgeandCoLtd1915AC847Thisisnowregardedasbeingmorerepresentativeofthedoctrineofconsiderationinthemoderncommercialcontractthanthe19cconcep
27、tofbenefitanddetriment.Thesubprinciplesmaybeseenas1)Considerationmustbeexecutedorexecutorybutnotpast2)Considerationmustmovefromthepromiseebutnotnecessarilytothepromisor;3)Considerationmustbesufficientthoughnotnecessarilyadequate.18PASTCONSIDERATIONThismetho
28、dreflectsthemethodsbywhichtheplaintiffpurchasesthepromiseofthedefendant.Inexecutoryconsiderationtheformoftheconsiderationarisesbywayofapromisebythedefendantinreturnbyapromisebytheplaintiff.Thisisanagreementwhichwilltakeplaceinthefuture.EGApromisesto
29、buyBscaroncredit,deliverytotakeplacenextweek.Herebothagreetoafuturedealsotheconsiderationisexecutory.Executedconsiderationoccurswhenoneofthepartieshasdoneallhecandounderthecontract,thatis,hehasexecutedhissideofthebargain.Theotherpartiesconsiderati
30、onwhichisstillunperformedremainsexecutoryinthatitremainstobecompletedinthefuture.19Pastconsiderationisnoconsideration.ApaintstheoutsideofBshouseasavoluntaryactwhileBisonholiday.WhenBreturnsfromholidayheispleasantlysurprisedbyAskindnessandpromisesto
31、payA$100.IfBrefusestopaycanAclaimTheclaimwillfailsinceAsconsiderationofpaintingthehouseispastinrelationofthepromisetopayandpastconsiderationisnoconsideration.ReMcArdle1951CH669Modernauthorityonpastconsideration.20EXCEPTIONSTOPASTCONSIDERATIONRULELa
32、mpleighvBraithwait(1615)Hob105BraithwaitkilledanothermanandaskedLampleightoobtainapardonforhimfromtheKing.Lampleighwenttoconsiderableexpensetosecurethepardonwhosubsequentlypromisedtopay100pounds.Braithwaittherefusedtopayandwassued.Clearlyonthebasisof
33、theruleonPASTCONSIDERATIONLampleighseffortswereinthepastinrelationtothepromise.ThecourtheldthattherewasanimpliedpromisetorewardandreimburseLampleighforhisefforst.Thusthepreviousrequestandsubsequentpromisewerepartofthesametransactionandassuchwereenforc
34、eable.Thisclearlyshowsthatthecourtsaretryingtheirbesttobefairandreasonable.21CONSIDATIONMUSTMOVEFROMTHEPROMISEETOTHEPROMISORTHOUGHNOTNECESSARILYTOTHEPROMISOR.PricevEaston(1833)4B&Ad433Priceowedtheplaintiff13poundsandagreedtoworkforthedefendantw
35、hopromisedtopayPriceswagestotheplaintiffbutthenfailedtodoso.Itwasheldthattheplaintiffcouldnotrecoverthemoneyfromthedefendantasnoconsiderationhadmovedfromtheplaintiff.22CONSIDERATIONMUSTBESUFFICIENTBUTNOTNECESSARILYADEQUATE.Theconsiderationmusthavesome
36、valuenamelyeconomicvalue.Adequacy:Describesthereciprocalelementsofthebargain,quidproquoofthecontract.Thisisveryimportantinthecontractasitdecidesiftheindividualhasmadeagoodsaleorpurchaseineconomicterms.Sufficiency:Thisdescribesnottheeconomicvalueofthec
37、onsidera-tionbutwhethertheconsiderationcanexistassuchintheeyesofthelawassupportingasimplecontract.Maincase23Chappell&CoLtdvNestleCoLtd1960AC87Acontractingpartycanstipulateforwhatconsiderationhechooses.Apeppercorndoesnotceasetobegoodconsideration
38、ifitisestablishedthatthepromiseedoesnotlikepepperandthrowsawaythecorn.24MidlandBankTrustCoLtdvGreen1981AC513Fatherhadoptiontoselltosonsoldtohiswifeafarmfor500poundseventhoughthefarmwasworth40,000pounds.CourtofAppealsaidthatbecauseitwassoldat
39、suchanundervaluedpricecouldnotamounttoasaleformoneysworth.HouseofLordsreversedthedecision:Thecourtwouldnotenquireintotheadequacyaslongastheconsiderationwasreal.Thustherewasagoodcontractbetweentheparties.25INTENTIONTOCREATEALEGALRELATIONSHIPSowecan
40、seethatthecourtswilllookverycarefullyateachsituationandthenmakeajudgmentbasedon3mainfactors.1)ItmustbeJUSTandFAIR2)ItmustbeREASONABLE3)Theremustbeproximitybetweentheparties.26MerrittvMerritt19701WLR1121Husbandlefthometolivewithanotherwomanandagr
41、eedinwritingtogivehiswife40poundsamonthtopayofthemortgageandwhenfinishedhewouldtransferthehouseintohername.Shepaidoffthemortgagethenherefusedtotransferthedeeds.CourtofAppeal:Theremostcertainlywasanintentiontocreatealegalrelationshipandthecourtsmu
42、stbeseentobefairandjustandtakeeverycaseonitsmerits.Itcanonlybereasonabletoexpectthismantohonourtheagreementshemakeswithanyonenotjusthisexwife.27DonoghuevStevenson1932AC562OneofthemostfamouscasesinEnglishlegalhistory.ItwasbasedonaTORTlawissu
43、eofnegligencebutisusedforthelawofproximityforallcontractlawcases.ItalsodefinedtheDUTYOFCAREprincipalusedinmanycountriesacrosstheworldtoday.28OntheeveningofSunday26August1928MayDonoghue,neMAlister,boardedatraminGlasgowforthethirty-minutejourneytoPa
44、isley.Ataroundtenminutestonine,sheandafriendtooktheirseatsintheWellmeadowCafinthetownsWellmeadowPlace.Theywereapproachedbythecafowner,FrancisMinchella,andDonoghuesfriendorderedandpaidforapearandiceandanice-creamdrink.Theownerbroughttheorderandpou
45、redpartofabottleofgingerbeerintoatumblercontainingicecream.Donoghuedranksomeofthecontentsandherfriendliftedthebottletopourtheremainderofthegingerbeerintothetumbler.Itwasclaimedthattheremainsofasnailinastateofdecompositiondroppedoutofthebottlein
46、tothetumbler.Donoghuelatercomplainedofstomachpainandherdoctordiagnosedherashavinggastroenteritisandbeinginastateofsevereshock.29On9April1929,DonoghuebroughtanactionagainstDavidStevenson,anaeratedwatermanufacturerinPaisley,inwhichsheclaimed500asdamages
47、forinjuriessustainedbyherthroughdrinkinggingerbeerwhichhadbeenmanufacturedbyhim.Thecasewasultimatelysettledoutofcourtandthefactswereneverestablishedinacourtoflaw.30TheidentityofDonoghuesfriendisunknown,butthatpersonisreferredtoassheinthecasereports
48、(includingthefirstparagraphofthejudgmentofLordMacMillanintheHouseofLords).Otherfactualuncertaintiesincludewhethertheanimal(ifitexisted)wasasnailoraslug;whetherthebottlecontainedgingerbeerorsomeotherbeverage(asgingerinGlaswegianandWestofScotlandparlan
49、cerefereedtoanyfizzydrink)andwhetherthedrinkwaspartofanice-creamsoda.31LegalbackgroundIncommonlaw,apersoncanclaimdamagesfromanotherpersonwherethatotherpersonowedthemadutyofcareandharmedthemthroughtheirnegligentaction.ThisconceptexistedpriortoDonoghu
50、e,butitwasgenerallyheldthatadutyofcarewasonlyowedinveryspecificcircumstances,suchaswhereacontractexistedbetweentwopartiesorwhereamanufacturerwasmakinginherentlydangerousproductsorwasactingfraudulently.32TherewasnocontractualrelationshipbetweenDonoghueth
51、edrinksmanufactureroreven,asDonoghuehadnotorderedorpaidforthedrinkherself,betweenDonoghueandthecafowner.AlthoughtherewasacontractualrelationshipbetweenthecafownerandDonoghuesfriend,thefriendhadnotbeenharmedbythegingerbeer.Asgingerbeerwasnotadangerou
52、sproduct,andthemanufacturerhadnotfraudulentlymisrepresentedit,thecasealsofelloutsidethescopeoftheestablishedcasesonproductliability.Onthefaceofit,thelawthereforedidnotprovidearemedyforDonoghue.33Donoghuessolicitor,WalterLeechmanofWGLeechman&CoinG
53、lasgowsWestGeorgeStreet,hadalreadytriedtoestablishliabilityagainstaeratedwatermanufacturerA.G.Barrwhenadeadmousewasallegedtohavefounditswayintoabottleofitsgingerbeer.However,anactionfordamageswasrejectedbytheInnerHouseoftheCourtofSession,whentheap
54、pealcourtjudgesruledthattherewasnolegalauthorityallowingsuchanaction(MullenvA.G.Barr&Co.1929S.C.461).34ProgressofthecaseThewritlodgedintheCourtofSessiononApril1929allegedthatMayDonoghuehadbecomeillwithnervousshockandgastroenteritisafterdrinking
55、partofthecontentsofanopaquebottleofgingerbeer,andDavidStevenson,themanufacturer,owedheradutytotakereasonablecarethatgingerbeerhemanufactured,bottled,labelledandsealed,andinvitedhertobuy,didnotcontainsubstanceslikelytocauseherinjury.Donoghueclaimeddama
56、gesof500.35Counselforthemanufacturerdeniedthatanysuchdutywasowed,butinJune1930thejudge,LordMoncrieff,ruledtherewasacasetoanswer.Stevensonappealedtherulingonanumberoflegalgrounds,andthejudgesoftheInnerHousegrantedtheappealinNovember1930,dismissingD
57、onoghuesclaimashavingnolegalbasisfollowingtheauthorityoftheirearlierdecisioninMullenvAGBarr.OneofthejudgessaidthattheonlydifferencebetweenDonoghuescaseandthemousecaseswasthedifferencebetweenarodentandagastropodandinScotslawthatmeantnodifferenceata
58、ll.36DonoghuewasallowedtoappealhercasetotheHouseofLordsbut,whilstherlegalteamhadagreedtoprovidetheirservicesfree,shewasunabletoputupthesecurityneededtoensuretheothersidescostsweremetshouldsheloseintheLords.However,assuchsecuritywouldnotberequire
59、difshecouldgainthestatusofapauper,shepetitionedtheHouseofLords,saying,Iamverypoorandamnotworthinalltheworldthesumoffivepounds,mywearingapparelandthesubjectmatterofthesaidappeal.Acertificateofpovertysignedbyaministerandtwoeldersofherchurchwas
60、attachedtothepetition,andtheHouseofLordsagreedtograntherpauperstatus.37Ninemonthsafterherpetitionwasgranted,LordsBuckmaster,Atkin,Tomlin,ThankertonandMacMillanheardcounselsarguments.Donoghuescounsel-GeorgeMortonKCandW.R.Milliganarguedthatamanufacturerwhoputsaproducti