又到了令无数考生头痛的英语环节，虽然复试英语没有初试考卷内容那么多且难，但是仅仅有口语考察这一关就足以令人重视，尤其是在中国考生普遍口语水平较低的情况下。所以，我们更要打起精神，把初试以后就搁置的英语捡起来，万万不可毫无准备就上场。
截至目前，我们能够统计到的人大英语复试考察的形式有以下几种。2020年以前是传统的线下笔试+面试，但由于三年疫情的影响，2020年、2021年、2022年人大的英语复试都是线上进行的，而且这三年的外语复试方案每年都不一样。具体考察方式及对应年份如下：
年份
笔试
面试
2020年以前
一小时六篇阅读
三人一组讨论
2020年
45分钟一篇大作文
单人朗读材料后老师提问
2021年
无
单人口头翻译后老师提问
2022年
六人一组围绕话题陈述并评价
一、英语笔试
二、英语面试
首先，笔者想强调几个共性问题。
一是自我介绍问题。虽然这几年的口语考试形式往往是直接抽签进入主题，没有和老师寒暄客套的环节，但是自我介绍却依然是要准备的，为什么？因为即便考场上用不到，自我介绍依然是让你开口说话的第一步。同学们学习了多年的哑巴英语，一朝想要练习口语一定是比较困难和羞于开口的，这时候就需要用自我介绍来破冰。笔者建议准备简洁版（1分钟以内）和详细版（2-3分钟）两个版本，先用中文写好再翻译成英文，因为专业课面试每年都是需要中文自我介绍的。自我介绍的具体模板可以参考公众号空卡和蝶澈学姐整理的内容。
二是口语口音问题。同学们不必纠结要用英音还是美音，其实哪怕你一口中式英语，能让老师和同组同学清晰的听懂都没有问题。虽然一口流利标准的英语能大大提高老师的印象分，但毕竟我们不是英专生，能尽量减少磕绊和迟疑，把话说明白就可以满足复试的要求了，用词、句式、语调的抑扬顿挫都是锦上添花。但是还是要给一些平时说话就口音较重的同学提个醒，不强调英语标准口音并不代表你可以为所欲为，还是要注意规整一下，至少不要让地方口音太明显。最后，无论线上线下，都要声音洪亮、语速适当，这不仅可以更好地让老师听清你的表达，而且可以显示出你的自信，细若蚊蝇且毫无激情的声音是大忌。
2022年的英语复试形式与内容和前一年的都不一样，比较复杂。素材选取的内容包括但不限于法律英语，也可能涉及到社会民生问题和热点问题。
笔者将口语流程总结如下：
1、随机抽签分组，在网站上公布组别和腾讯会议号，六人一组，每组大概半小时到四十分钟。
2、六人进入会议室准备期间（此时尚未开考见到老师），先由教务老师组织再次抽签，确定A1、A2、A3、B1、B2、B3分别对应的同学，并统一改备注名。
4、一分钟过后老师提醒A1同学发言，每人限时三分钟，按照A1、A2、A3、B1、B2、B3的顺序依次发言。
同学们不用太担心听不懂队友的英语，大家都有一定的基础，让人听清的能力基本都具备。况且，就算听不懂，只要抓住关键词也可以合理编写评价，每个人的发言稿基本都遵循总分总的结构，听清他表达的first、second等表示顺序的词之后的中心句即可。评价时不仅要简单复述对应同学的观点，最好还要提出他的优缺点。说优点时可以稍微夸大一点，并以谦虚的口吻表明自己的敬佩，说缺点时要委婉一点，表述成“如果…就更好了。”
1、抽取题目号码
3、朗读材料
4、口头翻译材料
5、老师提问+考生回答
2021年的英语复试在没有笔试的情况下，增加了对于段落的翻译。根据复试之后大家的反馈，法学学硕考生抽到的题目均为与法律有关的英语段落，包括民法、刑法、国际法等等，难度在标准的法律英语和普通英语之间，并且法律英语涉及到的具体学科类别并不会针对同学们报考的科目进行一一匹配，也就是说民商法的同学也可能抽到贪污贿赂犯罪主题的英文材料。因此笔者认为有必要单独准备法律英语，具体可以从如下方面入手：
1、找一些法律英语的段落，按照考研翻译题的做题思路和标准来自行翻译。考虑到考试时是口头翻译且无法在原文上勾画（电脑屏幕显示文本），且基本为长难句，应当逐渐提高翻译的速度。不过即使不会法律英语，在回答问题的时候也可以用自己已知的单词罗列进行解释说明。
2、有针对性地准备一下法律英语方面的单词，各科都要有所涉及。可以买一本市面上的教材，比如何家弘的法律英语，或者直接用本科上课时候留下的任何法律英语资料。看完课文之后，可以把基础的名词背一背，比如诉讼、不法行为、财产等，尽量在翻译时少碰到一些自己不会的单词，但万一有看不懂的词也不要慌张，可以联系上下文和你所学的法律知识进行合理编排，在语言组织上有意识的用其他猜测到的含义进行覆盖。
2020年的考察形式是把一篇阅读材料拆成几段，由学生朗读后老师针对你对该阅读的文意理解进行几轮提问。当年的阅读材料的选择范围很广，有时政类也有比较简单的科技利弊一类。属于比较传统的口语考试方式，类似雅思口语的part3。
一般来说，提问和追问不会让你哑口无言的，基本都是可以围绕生活见闻或者所学知识谈两点的，这里有一个回答问题的小技巧，就是不要拿到问题就直接以yes或no开头，这样就一下子把天聊死了。如果你快速想到了想说的内容，可以以“Well,that’sagoodquestion.”开头，如果还要犹豫一会暂时想不到好内容，可以说“Sorry.Ihaven’tthoughtaboutthisquestionbefore,butIguess……”另外，不要说一两句就停下来让老师找话题。如果没有什么可说的可以在话题范围内举一个自己的例子，描述自己的生活，多添加一些描述性的词语，比如，你想说：“我今天中午去了咖啡厅。”但是这句话可以扩写成：“今天中午我午睡醒来，感觉无所事事，但是天气又很好，所以我决定去街角那家咖啡店逛逛。我进到店里发现顾客很多，但我还是找到了一个阳光充足的位置……”
2020年以前的英语面试的考察方式是3个人组成一个小组，面试老师会给到一段材料，三人轮流朗读后，再按顺序发表意见看法。这种方式常见于大学英语口语课的期末考试中，相信许多同学也一定经历过。
具体练习时，3人分成ABC不同角色进行练习，A负责引导讨论和最后总结，3人轮流担当A这个角色。练习时，先分角色朗读各自的部分，再就该话题进行讨论。练习过程中可以一起总结一些怎样互相衔接、抛话给对方的表达，以及探索如何更好做总结。要时刻记住，团队里的三人是合作关系大于竞争关系，一荣俱荣一损俱损，因此不要风头过盛也不要一言不发，注意随机应变。
纵观这几年的考情变化，基本可以判断出考试形式越来越复杂，考察难度也在增加。但是，书山有路勤为径，学海无涯苦作舟。练习英语本没有什么捷径，口语更是如此，惟有勤加练习方能脱口而出。一开始肯定是困难重重，甚是挫败，但是请大家一定要坚持下去，不要摆烂。笔者在大三期间曾备考过雅思，练习口语的方式就是拿着一沓打印好的当季题库和自己提前写好的回答，在宿舍楼的楼梯间自己练习并录音比较，滚动练习2-3遍，直到把每一道题都练完。这样强迫自己开口说话和在心里默默打草稿是完全不一样的，一张嘴你就会发现自己的问题，有时候嘴赶不上脑子，有时候那个单词就在嘴边但是不知道怎么表达以至于停顿过长毁了整段对话。这些小问题都需要自己在练习时候不断摸索适合自己的解决方案。因此，口语的真理就是练。先不要管内容如何，至少能够完整的说三分钟英语来表达你的观点。
历来口语考试就是现场效果优于人机对话，如果2023年恢复线下考试，大家也不用过于担心和紧张，人大的老师们都十分随和，而且线下考试可能会让一些现场型选手兴奋起来，发挥出更佳状态。但万一不幸搞砸了笔试或口试的任意一个环节，也不要太过悲伤和自责，因为复试本身占比就少，而且分成专业课笔试、专业课面试和英语笔试面试这么多科，这样一来每一门的占比都不是很大，所以不会有致命打击。
1、税收的利弊
Taxesarevitalinanygovernment.Bothdemocraticandmilitarygovernmentsrequiretaxesfromthepublicsothatthegovernmentcanrunsmoothlyandefficiently.
Advantagesofpayingtaxes:
（1）Fundingtothegovernment:
Themostobviousadvantageoftaxingisthatthegovernmentcanreceivefundsfromthepublicsothatthegovernmentcanrunthecountry.Itgivesthegovernmentafreehandtocarryoutbasicoperationsforthecountry.Theconstitutionofunitesstatesalsoprovidestaxationreasons.Onereasonisbuildinganarmyforthesecurityofthecountry.Moreover,thereareotheroperationfacilitiesthatthegovernmenthastofulfillbyusingthefundsreceivedthroughtaxes.Theadministrationthatrunsthecountrywouldnotevenexistiftherewerenotaxes.Asthegovernmentpaysitsadministrationtocontrolthecountryandpasslegislatures.
（2）Equalwealthdistribution:
Taxesalsoprovidethepeoplewithanadvantage.Thatthefundscollectedbythegovernmentarespendingonthepeopleequally.Thegovernmentcandistributethewealthequallyandprovidethepoorwithnecessitiesoflifesuchasfood,clothes,andhomeshelters.Thetaxpayerswiththemostmoneyarerestrictedbythegovernmenttopayfordifferenteconomicalprogramslaunchedforthepoor.Asthesewealthytaxpayershelpthegovernmentinfundingthepoorpeople.Theseprogramsallowthemiddleclassandthepoorclasstobecomestable.
（3）Taxconsumption:
Mostofthetimegovernmentdoesnotrequireextrafunds,butitstillappliesheavytaxesoncertainproducts.Theydothisbecausethoseproductsareharmfultothehealthofthepeople.Byimposingheavytaxesonthosesubstances,suchascigarettesandalcohol,Thegovernmenttriestodiscouragepeoplefrombuyingsuchstuffthatisunhealthyforthem.
Disadvantagesoftaxes：
Therearemultipleadvantagesofimposingtaxesonthepublic,therearealsosomedisadvantages.Onedisadvantageistheirregularitybetweenconsumersspending.Taxationisharmfultothebusinesssectorasitcanpotentiallydecreaseconsumerspending.Itisbecausetaxescansnatchmoneyfromconsumers,anditcanleadtolowerdisposableincome.Ithappensifthegovernmentmakeswrongdecisionsandimposesincorrectbusinesslaws.Sometimes，peoplealsosaythatthegovernmenttreatsaspecificgroupunfairlyandbenefitsothergroups.Thegovernmentmayimposetaxesthatmightbenefittherichandcanbeunfairforthepoor.
2、人口老龄化
Theageingoftheworld'spopulationsistheresultofthecontinueddeclineinfertilityratesandincreasedlifeexpectancy.Inotherwords,peoplearehavingfewerchildren,andarehavingthematlaterages.Theyarealsolivinglonger.Thisdemographicchangehasresultedinincreasingnumbersandproportionsofpeoplewhoareover60.Asaresult,thefirsttimeinhistorywhentherewillbemoreolderpeoplethanyoungerpeopleisrapidlyapproaching.
Ageinghasimportantconsequencesforthestate,healthcare,educationand,moregenerally,fortheeconomicgrowthofanation.Aspeoplegrowolder,theysufferfromnewerandmoreseverehealthissues.Inparticular,therewillbemorechronicdiseases.Thus,anageingpopulationplacesacrucialburdenonanation'shealthcaresystem.
Economieswillneedtoallocatemoreresourcestomedicalcare,asolderpopulationsrequiremoreandbetterhealthcarefacilities.Thiswillmeanreviewinggovernmentpolicyandfinancialframeworks.
Thehealthcaresystemwillalsoneedtobesuppliedwithskilledandqualifiedworkerswhocanprovideefficient,high-qualitycare.
Hospitalsandotherinstitutionswillhavetoadoptnewtechnologyandbetterinfrastructure.
3、文化遗产返还
ForcountrieswhoseculturalheritagewasransackedovertheyearslikeChina,theireffortsinretrievingthelostculturalheritageareontheway.Manydifficulties,suchasinternationalconventionsandadversearticlesinmanycountries'domesticlaws,mayhinderthereturnofthislostculturalheritage,andcountriesoforiginneedtofindmorewaystogettheirownpropertyback.
Inrecentyears,Chinahassuccessfullyretrievedmoreandmoreofitslostculturalrelicsbyusingdiversemethods."ThemostimportantreasonwhymanyculturalrelicscamebackhomeinrecentyearsistheenhancementofChina'sstrength,"saidHuoZhengxin,professoroflawandvicedeanoftheFacultyofInternationalLawattheChinaUniversityofPoliticalScienceandLaw.
Thereareseveralcommonwaystopursuelostculturalrelics:donations,bilateralenforcementcooperation,lodgingatransnationallawsuit,diplomaticnegotiation,andcommercialrepurchase.Althoughitwasoncethemainmethodofreturningrelics,repurchaseshavebecomelesspopularduetosomeorganizationsauctioningtheitemsoffinatraditionalmanner,thuscreatingbiddingwars."Topursueculturalrelicsstolenandsmuggledinthemodernday,weprefertouselegalactions,andtopursueculturalrelicslostinearlydays,wecanusemoreflexibleways,suchasnegotiation,"saidHuo.
Forexample,bronzeanimalheads,originallypartofafountainattheOldSummerPalace,werelootedbytheAnglo-FrenchAlliedForcesin1860.Thepricesoftheheadshadrisenbyover10,000timessincethefirstauctionin1987."WhentheylootedculturaltreasuresfromChinaatthetime,itwasaharmtoChinesepeople.Today,Chineseboughtthembackathighprices.Ithinkitisanotherkindofharm,"saidHuo.
4、法律职业伦理
Legalethicsisatermusedtodescribeacodeofconductgoverningproperprofessionalbehavior,whichestablishesthenatureofobligationsowedtoindividualsandtosociety.Inordertomaintainalicensetopracticelaw,attorneysagreetouploadtherulesofprofessionalconduct.
Principlesoflegalethics,whetherwrittenorunwritten,notonlyregulatetheconductoflegalpracticebutalsoreflectsthebasicassumptions,premisesandmethodsofthelegalsystemwithinwhichthelawyeroperates.
Ethicsinanyprofessionarecrucialanditisperhapsmorepressinginthelegalprofessionwherelawyersespeciallywereviewedwithsuspicion.Thusanenforcedcodeofconductisvitalinensuringthecredibilityofthepractitionersandlegalsystemasawhole.Oftenlawyersandotherlegalpractitionersarefacedwithconflictinginterestsfromtheclientstheyrepresent,societyatlargeandpersonalinterests.Legalethicsarethereforeimportantinhelpingthelawyertonavigatethedelicatebalanceoftheseinterestsandworktopromotethegreatestgood.Ethicsalsoservetosafeguardtheinterestsoftheclientbeingrepresentedandensuretheyreceiveservicewithoutdiscrimination.
5、办公室安装监控是否合法
Camerasintheworkplacecanhelpprotectthecompanyfromtheftandothersecurityissues.However,peoplemaybewonderingiftheseofficesecuritycamerasareaninvasionofprivacyofemployeesorsparkanylegalityissues.
Unlikeinstallingsurveillancecamerasinpublicplaces,generally,there’sNOexplicitprohibitionagainstsurveillancecamerasintheworkplaceinUSFederalLaws.LawsoncamerasintheworkplacedifferbystatesintheUS.ManystateshavemadeCCTVregulationsintheworkplace,toprotectemployees’rights.
However，thereisafinelinethatbetweenfilmingthatcanprotectbusinessandfilmingthatcaninfringeontheprivacyrightsofemployees.Examplesoflawfulreasonstousecamerasintheworkplaceincludethefollowing:
1)MonitorWhatEmployeesareDoingWhileTheyareontheClock
2)PreventInternalTheftwithOfficeSecurityCameraSystem
3)ProtectYourOfficefromExternalTheft/BurglarywithOfficeCameras
Inmoststates,useofvideosurveillancecamerasintheworkplaceisdeemedunlawfulincertainareas,whichincludeanyareaswherereasonableprivacymaybeinfringedupon.Theseareastypicallyincluderestrooms,lockerrooms,breakroomsandemployeelounges,oranyotherareawhereanemployee’sreasonableprivacymaybecompromised.
6、物种灭绝
Extinctionisthecompletelossofaspeciesfromourplanet.Specieslossoccursnaturallyovermillionsofyears,andisanormalpartofevolution.Butmanyexpertsbelievewearecurrentlyexperiencingasixthmassspeciesextinction.Billionsofregionalandlocalwildpopulationshavealreadybeenlost,andentirespeciesarebecomingextinctatasignificantlyfasterratethanhashappenedatanytimeduringthelastmillionyears.Whatisthecauseofthisglobalbiologicalannihilation？People.
Ourfoodchoicesareabsolutelycentraltothefateofwildlife.Ashumansdestroyhabitatsaroundtheworld,breakdowntheclimate,andhuntandkillwildanimals,includingintheoceans,wildpopulationsplummet.Ourtreatmentandexploitationoffarmedanimalsfortheirflesh,skin,milk,eggs,andotherby-productsdrivesenvironmentaldestruction,and,alongsideotheragriculturalfactors,isahugedriverofthislossofwildlife.Wemustmakedrasticchangestoslowthisdown.
Thewildworldhasintrinsicvalue,andweshouldrespectitonthatbasisalone,asourancestorsundoubtedlydid.Butthereisanotherreasontochangeourways:Humansrelyonbiodiversityofwildlifeandplantlifetosurvive,andthemorewedrivethemtoextinction,thecloserwepushourselvestothesamefate.
7、3D打印犯罪
3Dprintinghasthepotentialtotransformtheworldbysimplifyingmanufacturing,shorteningsupplyanddistributionchains,democratizingproduction,creatingandrepatriatingjobs,andcustomizingproductstousers’specificneeds.But3Dprintingcanalsobetheproverbialdevil’splayground.Likemanytechnologies,3Dprintinghasadarkside,andcriminalsareusing3Dprinterstocreatenewformsofcrime.
Someillegal3D-printedproducts（suchasFirearmsdrugsandcash）willbebought,sold,ortradedinphysicalorvirtualblackmarkets.Organizedcrimewillfindcreativewaystoprofitfrom3Dprinting,suchastraffickingin3D-printeddrugsandhumanorgans.Terroristswilladoptthetechnologytofurthertheirmisguidedmissions.Itisimpossibletopredicthowdeeplysuchuserswilldelveintothedarksideof3Dprinting.
Aswithmanytechnologies,3Dprintingcanbemisused,butnotbecausethetechnologyisinherentlyflawed.Peopleareflawed.Althoughthesizeoftheproblemcouldbehuge,thisisonlybecausethetechnologyissorevolutionaryanddisruptive.Governments,lawenforcement,homelandsecurity,andthemilitaryneedtoassesstherisksfromthedarksideof3Dprintingandplanaccordingly.
8、律所加班
It’swidelyknownthatlawyerworkinghoursarelongandgrueling.Forattorneys,afull-timerolerarelymeansnine-to-five:AccordingtotheU.S.BureauofLaborStatistics,themajorityoflawyersworkfulltime,withmanyputtinginmorethan40hourseachweek—especiallyprivatepracticeandlarge-firmlawyers.
Ifwelookatthecomplexitiesofthetypicalcareerpathoflawyers,it’sevidentwhylawyersworksomuch.There’ssomuchtodo—frommeetingbillablehourrequirements,managingclients,goingtocourt,andstayingontopofcaseprep.Withtheworkloadcomesalotofpressuretotoughitoutwithlongworkinghourstogeteverythingdone.
Butthereisahugeproblemwithsimplyacceptingthattheworkinghoursofalawyerare,bynecessity,exceptionallylonganddemanding.Normalizingoverworkinthelegalprofessionfuelsanindustrythatsuffersfromburnout,excessivestress,substanceabuseandmentalhealthissues,andanoveralllackofwell-being.
9、中美关系
Overthepasthalfacentury,theChina-U.S.relationshiphaskeptmovingforwarddespitetwistsandturns.Ithasnotonlyhadaprofoundimpactonthetwocountries,buthasalsochangedthecourseofhistoryandtheworldsignificantly.Theworldtodayisgoingthroughmajorchangesunseeninacentury.Astwobigcountriesdifferentinhistory,culture,socialsystemanddevelopmentstage,ChinaandtheUnitedStatesareenteringanewroundofmutualexploration,understandingandadaptation,tryingtofindawaytogetalongwitheachotherinthenewera.TheChina-U.S.relationshiphasonceagaincometoanewcriticaljuncture,facingnotonlymanydifficultiesandchallengesbutalsogreatopportunitiesandpotentials.Wherethisimportantrelationshipwillbeheadedisvitalforthewell-beingoftheChineseandAmericanpeoplesandforthefutureoftheworld.Thetwopeoplesandtheinternationalcommunityhopeforasound,stableandgrowingrelationshipbetweenthetwocountries
10、妇女权益保护法修订
OnOctober30,2022,theStandingCommitteeofthe13thNationalPeople’sCongress,China’stoplegislativebody,passedtherevisedLawontheProtectionofWomen’sRightsandInterests(hereinafterreferredtoasthe“Women’sProtectionLaw”).TheamendedWomen’sProtectionLaw,whichwilltakeeffectonJanuary1,2023,addednearly30newprovisionstoenhancewomen’sprotectioninareasrangingfromgenderequalityinrecruitmentandcontractnegotiation,employer’sobligationinsexualharassmentprevention,aswellasreliefmeasurestowomenshouldtheirrightsandinterestsbeingharmed.
TheexposuredraftfortheWomen’sProtectionLawamendmentgarneredmorethan700,000commentsduringtheseekingopinionstage,makingitthelegislativedocumentthatwascommentedthemostinrecentyears.Thelawwasamendedin2005and2018,respectively,afterbeingfirstenactedin1992.
WhatarethekeychangesinChina’snewWomen’sProtectionLaw
1）Eliminategenderdiscriminationinthehiringprocess
2）Protectfemaleemployees’birthrights
3）Preventsexualharassment
4）Protecttheprivacyandpersonalinformationofwomen
Asthecountrystrugglestodealwithademographicproblem,astringofgender-relatedscandalshavealsosparkedpublicoutcryovergenderinequality.Consequently,in2021,thegovernmentunveiledanew10-yearplan,theOutlineofWomen’sDevelopmentinChina(2021-2030)，withastrongemphasisonemploymentrights.Thedocumentproposed75maingoalsand93supportivemeasures,coveringkeyareasincludinghealth,education,andtheeconomy.
TheOutlinesuggeststhatby2030,thebasicnationalpolicyofequalitybetweenmenandwomenwillbethoroughlyimplemented,andtheinstitutionalmechanismstopromoteequalitybetweenmenandwomenandtheall-rounddevelopmentofwomenwillbeinnovatedandimproved,aspartofthegovernment’smajoreffortstoeliminatediscriminationandimprovethestatusofwomeninChina.
11、网络信息安全
Thehumanbeingsaresteppingintotheinformationsociety.Theinformationindustrydevelopsveryrapidly,sodothehackers,trick-playingteens,exploringchildren,fraudsters,andseriouswhite-collarcriminals.Thus,informationsecuritybecomesanimpendingimportantissue.
Incaseofinformationbreach,thevictims－governmentdepartment,anorganizationoraninstitution,oracompanywillinevitablysuffergreatorsmallloss.Governmentmaybethreatenedwithnationalsecurity.Companiesmayloseopportunitiestodevelopnewprojects.Andthepublic’sandusers’confidencewillbedamaged.
ThenhowtodealwiththisissueTechnologyisonlyapartialsolutiontoinformationsecurity.What’smoreimportantisthatorganizationsandcompaniesshouldpromotetheawarenessoninformationsecuritytoitsstaff.However,sincenosystemcaneverbe100percentsecure,aprevention-onlyapproachtoinformationsecuritymanagementisnotenough.Companiesandorganizationsshouldadoptadualapproachtoinformationsecuritymanagementbycombingpreventionanddetectiontechniques
12、低碳经济
TheStateCouncilhasreleasedaguidelinetoacceleratethedevelopmentofagreenandlow-carboncirculareconomicdevelopmentsystem.
Theguidelineurgeseffortstofirmlyimplementthenewdevelopmentphilosophy,boostefficiencyintheuseofresources,strengthenprotectionoftheecologicalenvironmentandeffectivelycontrolgreenhousegasemissions.
By2025,Chinawillseeamarkedriseinthescaleofgreenindustries,acontinueddropinmajorpollutantsandaslashedcarbonemissionintensity,accordingtotheguideline.
By2035,energyandresourceutilizationefficiencyinkeyindustriesandkeyproductsisexpectedtoreachaninternationallyadvancedlevel,andthegoaltobuildabeautifulChinawillbebasicallyreached.
Chinahasannounceditwillstrivetopeakcarbondioxideemissionsby2030andachievecarbonneutralityby2060.
13、司法独立
Judicialindependence,theabilityofcourtsandjudgestoperformtheirdutiesfreeofinfluenceorcontrolbyotheractors,whethergovernmentalorprivate.Thetermisalsousedinanormativesensetorefertothekindofindependencethatcourtsandjudgesoughttopossess.
Anycomprehensiveandcoherentdefinitionofjudicialindependencemustaddressseveralquestions.Thefirstis,“Independenceforwhom”;thesecondis,“Independencefromwhom”;andthethirdis,“Independencefromwhat”Tosupplysatisfyinganswerstothosequestions,however,itisnecessarytoconsiderwhyjudicialindependenceisvaluableandwhatitissupposedtoaccomplish.Inotherwords,itisnecessarytoaddressthequestion,“Independenceforwhatpurpose”
1)Independenceforwhom
Judicialindependencecanbedefinedasacharacteristicofindividualjudgesorasacharacteristicofthejudiciaryasawhole.Neitherconceptionisindisputablypreferabletotheotherasapracticalmatter.Ontheonehand,ifjudicialindependenceisguaranteedattheinstitutionallevelbutnotattheindividuallevel,individualjudgescanbeforcedtoobeythewishesoftheleadershipofthejudiciary,whichmayresultinaless-than-wholeheartedenforcementoftheruleoflaw.InChileandJapan,forexample,theextenttowhichthejudiciaryasaninstitutioncommandsobedienceandconformityfromitsmembershasbeenblamedforproducingtimidjudgeswhoareunwillingorunabletoruleagainstthegovernment.Ontheotherhand,ifjudicialindependenceisensuredattheindividuallevel,individualjudgeswillfindthemselvesatlibertytopursuetheirindividualpreferences.Uncheckeddiscretionofthatkindnotonlyinvitesabusebutalsoraisesthelikelihoodthatjudgeswilldecidecasesininconsistentways,withthepotentialeffectofunderminingthepredictabilityandstabilityofthelaw.
2)Independencefromwhom
Theexistenceandadequacyofjudicialindependencebecomemattersofpracticalconcernonlywhenacourtdecidesadisputeinvolvingtheinterestsofsomeactororinstitutionwithpotentialoractualpoweroverthecourt.Generallyspeaking,themorepowerfultheactorwhoseinterestsareatstake,thegreatertheneedtoprotecttheindependenceofthecourtfromthatactor.Ifbothsidestothedisputearepowerful,however,thatsymmetryofpowermayprovidepartorallofthenecessaryprotection.
3)Independencefromwhat
Notallformsofinfluenceoverjudicialdecisionmakingconstitutethreatstojudicialindependence.Whereassomeactivitiesaimedatinfluencingcourts,suchasbriberyandintimidation,maybeinappropriateunderanyplausibleconceptionofjudicialindependence,otherscanbeevaluatedonlyonthebasisofcontestablenormativejudgments.Inthecaseofpublicprotestsinfrontofcourthouses,forexample,oneviewmightbethatsuchprotestsshouldbeprivilegedasaformofpoliticalexpressionandthatjudgesinademocracyarepermittedorevenobligatedtotakepublicopinionintoaccount.Alternatively,onemighttaketheviewthatjudgesshouldbeshieldedfromsuchexpressionsofpublicopinion,muchasjurorsaresequestered,toensurethattheirdeliberationsarenottaintedbyconsiderationsthatoughttobeirrelevant.Likewise,apubliccampaigntodenyajudgereelectionbecausehehasruledinunpopularwaysoncontroversialissuescanbecharacterizedaseitherahealthymanifestationofdemocracyorasathreattojudicialindependence.
14、死刑
Intherecentcenturies,thedeathpenaltyhasbecomerarebecauseitsuseasamethodofpunishmenthasbeenbannedbymanygovernments.Countriesthatstillcarryoutpunishmentbydeathpenaltyconstitutesaboutonlyathirdofthecountriesintheworld.SuchcountriesincludeIran,Iraq,China,SaudiArabia,UnitedStates,Afghanistan,Yemen,andSudanamongothers.
Othercountries,amongthemAustralia,Canada,Mexico,andallmembersoftheCouncilofEuropehaveabolishedtheuseofthedeathpenalty.Atotalof75countriesintheworldhavecompletelyabolishedtheuseofdeathpenaltyregardlessofwhethertheoffensecommittedisacapitaloffenseornot.
Inmostcountriesthatpracticethedeathpenalty,thepenaltyisreservedonlyforthecapitalorseriouscrimes.Suchcrimesincludemurder,terrorismrape,kidnappingandhumantrafficking,illegaldrugtraffickingandcorruptionandbribery.Besides,insomestates,somesexualoffensessuchasprostitutionhomosexualityandadulteryarepunishablebythedeathpenalty.However,somecountriesalsoimposethedeathpenaltyonsmallercrimessuchasgeneraltheftanddrugs.
Itisalsoimportanttounderstandthatexecutionofthedeathpenaltyisgovernedbysomelawsandregulation.Forinstance,particulargroupsofpeopleareexcludedfrombeingsentencedtodeath.AccordingtotheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,juvenileoffendersareexcludedfromreceivingthedeathpenalty.Besides,mentallyhandicappedcriminalsarealsoexcludedfromreceivingthedeathpenalty.Theseverityofthecapitaloffencecommittedbythejuvenileandthementallyhandicappedisseenaslessseverebasedonthementalcapabilityandthereforeimposingadeathpenaltyonthemisregardeddisproportionatelysevere.
15、福利国家
Theterm"welfarestate"referstoatypeofgoverninginwhichthenationalgovernmentplaysakeyroleintheprotectionandpromotionoftheeconomicandsocialwell-beingofitscitizens.Awelfarestateisbasedontheprinciplesofequalityofopportunity,equitabledistributionofwealth,andpublicresponsibilityforthoseunabletoavailthemselvesoftheminimalprovisionsofagoodlife.SocialSecurity,federallymandatedunemploymentinsuranceprograms,andwelfarepaymentstopeopleunabletoworkareallexamplesofthewelfarestate.
Mostmoderncountriespracticesomeelementsofwhatisconsideredthewelfarestate.Thatsaid,thetermisfrequentlyusedinaderogatorysensetodescribeastateofaffairswherethegovernmentinquestioncreatesincentivesthatarebeyondreason,resultinginanunemployedpersononwelfarepaymentsearningmorethanastrugglingworker.Thewelfarestateissometimescriticizedasbeinga"nannystate"inwhichadultsarecoddledandtreatedlikechildren.
16、对民主的认识
Democracymeans“rulebythepeople,”democracyisasystemofgovernmentthatnotonlyallowsbutrequirestheparticipationofthepeopleinthepoliticalprocesstofunctionproperly.U.S.PresidentAbrahamLincoln,inhisfamed1863GettysburgAddressmayhavebest-defineddemocracyasa“…governmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeople…”
Semantically,thetermdemocracycomesfromtheGreekwordsfor“people”(dēmos)and“rule”(karatos).However,achievingandpreservingagovernmentbythepeople—a“popular”government—isfarmorecomplicatedthantheconcept’ssemanticsimplicitymightimply.Increatingthelegalframeworkunderwhichthedemocracywillfunction,typicallyaconstitution,severalcrucialpoliticalandpracticalquestionsmustbeanswered.
Is“rulebythepeople”evenappropriateforthegivenstateDotheinherentfreedomsofademocracyjustifydealingwithitscomplexbureaucracyandelectoralprocesses,orwouldthestreamlinedpredictabilityofamonarchy,forexample,bepreferable
Assumingapreferencefordemocracy,whichresidentsofthecountry,state,ortownshouldenjoythepoliticalstatusoffullcitizenshipSimplystated,whoarethe“people”inthe“governmentbythepeople”equationIntheUnitedStates,forexample,theconstitutionallyestablisheddoctrineofbirthrightcitizenshipprovidesthatanypersonbornonU.S.soilautomaticallybecomesaU.S.citizen.Otherdemocraciesaremorerestrictiveinbestowingfullcitizenship.
WhichpeoplewithinthedemocracyshouldbeempoweredtoparticipateinitAssumingthatonlyadultsareallowedtofullyparticipateinthepoliticalprocess,shouldalladultsbeincludedForexample,untiltheenactmentofthe19thAmendmentin1920,womenintheUnitedStateswerenotallowedtovoteinnationalelections.Ademocracythatexcludestoomanyofthegovernedfromtakingpartinwhatissupposedtobetheirgovernmentrunstheriskofbecominganaristocracy—governmentbyasmall,privilegedrulingclass—oranoligarchy—governmentbyanelite,typicallywealthy,few.
If,asoneofthefoundationalprinciplesofdemocracyholds,themajorityrules,whatwilla“proper”majoritybeAmajorityofallcitizensoramajorityofcitizenswhovoteonlyWhenissues,astheyinevitablywill,dividethepeople,shouldthewishesofthemajorityalwaysprevail,orshould,asinthecaseoftheAmericanCivilRightsMovement,minoritiesbeempoweredtoovercomemajorityruleMostimportantly,whatlegalorlegislativemechanismsshouldbecreatedtopreventthedemocracyfrombecomingavictimofwhatoneofAmerica’sFoundingFathers,JamesMadison,called“thetyrannyofthemajority”
Finally,howlikelyisitthatamajorityofthepeoplewillcontinuetobelievethatdemocracyisthebestformofgovernmentforthemForademocracytosurviveitmustretainthesubstantialsupportofboththepeopleandtheleaderstheychoose.Historyhasshownthatdemocracyisaparticularlyfragileinstitution.Infact,ofthe120newdemocraciesthathaveemergedaroundtheworldsince1960,nearlyhalfhaveresultedinfailedstatesorhavebeenreplacedbyother,typicallymoreauthoritarianformsofgovernment.Itisthereforeessentialthatdemocraciesbedesignedtorespondquicklyandappropriatelytotheinternalandexternalfactorsthatwillinevitablythreatenthem.
17、法律与社会的关系
Theoristshavetraditionallymaintainedthattherearecertainbroadonthesubstantivecriminallaw.Onesetofsuchconstraintsconcernsthesortsofbehaviorthatmaylegitimatelybeprohibited.Isitproper,forexample,tocriminalizeacertainkindofactiononthegroundsthatmostpeopleinone’ssocietyregarditasimmoralTheothersetofconstraintswhichconcernwhatisneededinordertoestablishcriminalresponsibilitythatisliability,independentlyofthecontentoftheparticularstatutewhoseviolationisinquestion.
Legalsystemreflectsalltheenergyoflifewithininanysociety.Lawhasthecomplexvitalityofalivingorganism.Wecansaythatlawisasocialsciencecharacterizedbymovementandadaptation.Rulesareneithercreatednorappliedinavacuum,ontheotherhandtheycreatedandusedtimeandagainforapurpose.Rulesareintendedtomoveusinacertaindirectionthatweassumeisgood,orprohibitmovementindirectionthatwebelieveisbad.
Thesocialrulesaremadebythemembersofthesociety.Disobedienceofthesocialrulesisfollowedbypunishmentofsocialdisapproval.Thereisnopositivepenaltyassociatedwiththeviolationofrulesexceptexcommunicationorostracism.Ontheotherhand,Lawisenforcedbythestate.Theobjectiveoflawistobringorderinthesocietysothemembersofsocietycanprogressanddevelopwithsomesortofsecurityregardingthefuture.
Thestatemakeslaws.Disobedienceofstatelawscausepenalty,whichisenforcedbytheGovernmentbythepowerofthestate.WhichisnotenforceableisnotLaw.
18、大陆法系与英美法系的比较
TheDifferencesbetweenContinentalLawSystemandAnglo-AmericanLawSystem
ThetermAnglo-AmericanLawSystemreferstothesystemoflawdevelopedinEnglandandtransferredtomostoftheEnglish-speakingworld.ItisdistinguishedfromtheContinentalLawSystemusedinContinentalEurope,andinthosenationssettledbyEuropeanpeoples.Boththetwosystemsarethebasisoflawinmostofthewesternworld.ThecontinentallawsystemcanbetracedbacktoRomanlaw,whichextendedtothelimitsoftheEmpire.Itreceiveditsmodernimpetusfromtheearlynineteenth-centuryFrenchcodesoflawcreatedbyFrenchjurists.
Thedifferencesbetweenthetwocanbeputasfollows:
First,thebasicdistinctionbetweenthetwosystemsliesinthesourcesoflawuponwhichtheyrely.TheAnglo-AmericanLawSystemusespriordecidedcasesasveryhighsourcesofauthority.
Courtsshouldadheretothelawassetforthinpriorcasesdecidedbythehighestcourt.Thejudgeshoulddeterminewhethertheprinciplederivedfromthepriorcasesislogicallyessentialtotheirdecisionorisreasonable、appropriatetocontemporarycircumstances.TheContinentalLawSystemontheotherhand,isoriginatedfromcodesoflaws.Whenaconflictispresentedtoacourtorlawyer,theimmediateproblemistofindtheappropriatecodeprovisionconcerningthesituationandthentoapplyittotheproblemathand.Casesarenotignored,buttheydonothaveanythingbindingauthorityonjudges.
Second,itisthejuristwhoplayedanimportantrolewhentheContinentalLawSystembecamewhatitisnow,but,intheAnglo-AmericanLawSystem,thejudgescontributedalot.
Third,theContinentalLawSystempaysmoreattentiontosubstantiallaw，whiletheAnglo-AmericanLawSystemstressonprocedurallaw.Thelatterunderlinestrials、procedure、proofandexecution.
Fourth,thedifferencesincompositionofthetwoareapparent.IntheContinentalLawSystem,publiclawandprivatelawarethebasicclassification,andthecivillawarethebasicclassification,andthecivillawplaysanimportantroleinit.WhilethebasicpartsoftheAnglo-AmericanLawSystemarecommonlawandequitylaw,andpubliclawisthekeypartofit.
Finally,theconceptsandvocabularyofthemarenotthesameeither.Forexample,“Civillaw”oftheContinentalLawSystemand“Propertylaw”intheAnglo-AmericanLawSystem.Thoughthesedifferencesmentionedabove,atrendofcollaborationcanbeseennowadays.Forexample,ourjudicialsystembelongstotheContinentalLawSystem,butwelearnedtheinstitutionofIndependentDirectorfromtheAnglo-AmericanLawSystem.
19、法制改革
Thereforminlegalsystemisoneoftheimportantformsoflawdevelopment.Itmeansreformingfromthecontenttotheformoflaw,fromtheenactmenttotheenforcementoflaw,tomeettheneedsofchangingsociety.Here,Ijustwanttotalkaboutthecharacteristicsandreasonsofthereforminlegalsystem.
Theinitialaimofthereforminlegalsystemismainlytoestablishanefficientandcoordinatedlegalsystem.So,itstasksaretocreatesomebranchesoflaw,drawupnewlaws,andabandonormodifysomeoldlaws.Forexample,duringtheprocessofreformation,Chinahascreatedtheeconomiclaw,thebusinesslaw,theenvironmentallaw,andsoon.Inmorethan2000lawsandregulationsissuedfrom1949to1979,halfofthemwereabandoned,onefourthweremodified,andonefourthkeepvalid.
Withtheimprovementofthelegalsystem,peoplepaymoreattentiontotheeffectoflaw.First,peoplearemoreconcernedwiththeoperationoflawinlegislation.Second,thereforminthesystemofjudicatureisputontheagenda.Third,theimprovementofthesupervisorysystemoflawispaidmoreattention.Inshort,inthisstage,thecoreofreformationistoimprovetheoperatingsystemoflaw.
But,what’stheultimategoalofourreformIthinkitistorealizerulebylaw.Meanwhile,toprotecttherightsofcitizenisalsoitsmission.Aswesee,thereforminlegalsystemisalwaysaccompaniedbyothersocialreforms.It’soneofthecharacteristicsofthereforminlegalsystem.Besidestheinnerconflictbetweenlaws,thereformineconomicsystemandpoliticalsystemaretheimpetusofreforminlegalsystem.
Onlyifthelawadaptsthedevelopmentofsociety,itcouldbringitsfunctionsintoplay.But,thereformmaybealongprocess,andwelookforwardtothecomingofasocietyruledbylaw.
20、法治
Theruleoflawisasetofprinciples,orideals,forensuringanorderlyandjustsociety.Manycountriesthroughouttheworldstrivetoupholdtheruleoflawwherenooneisabovethelaw,everyoneistreatedequallyunderthelaw,everyoneisheldaccountabletothesamelaws,thereareclearandfairprocessesforenforcinglaws,thereisanindependentjudiciary,andhumanrightsareguaranteedforall.
21、联合国
TheUnitedNationsisaninternationalorganizationfoundedin1945.Currentlymadeupof193MemberStates,theUNanditsworkareguidedbythepurposesandprinciplescontainedinitsfoundingCharter.
TheUNhasevolvedovertheyearstokeeppacewitharapidlychangingworld.
Butonethinghasstayedthesame:itremainstheoneplaceonEarthwherealltheworld’snationscangathertogether,discusscommonproblems,andfindsharedsolutionsthatbenefitallofhumanity.
22、性别歧视
Sexismmeansdiscriminationbasedonsexorgender,orthebeliefthatbecausemenaresuperiortowomen,discriminationisjustified.Suchabeliefcanbeconsciousorunconscious.Insexism,asinracism,thedifferencesbetweentwo(ormore)groupsareviewedasindicationsthatonegroupissuperiororinferior.Sexistdiscriminationagainstgirlsandwomenisameansofmaintainingmaledominationandpower.Theoppressionordiscriminationcanbeeconomic,political,social,orcultural.
ElementsofSexism
1)Sexismincludesattitudesorideology,includingbeliefs,theories,andideasthatholdonegroup(usuallymale)asdeservedlysuperiortotheother(usuallyfemale),andthatjustifyoppressingmembersoftheothergrouponthebasisoftheirsexorgender.
2)Sexisminvolvespracticesandinstitutionsandthewaysinwhichoppressioniscarriedout.Theseneednotbedonewithaconscioussexistattitudebutmaybeunconsciouscooperationinasystemthathasbeeninplacealreadyinwhichonesex(usuallyfemale)haslesspowerandfewergoodsinthesociety.
23、人工智能否取代律师、法官
Imaginegoingtocourt,andinsteadofseeingajudgewearingtheircloakandholdingtheirgavel,youseearobotreadytohearyourcase.Wouldyoutrustthismachinetogiveyouandyourclientafairtrial–onethatcouldshapeawholelife
Artificialintelligenceisslowlybeginningtoaidlegalprofessionals,lawfirms,andtheoveralllegalindustry.TheconsensusisthatAIwillonedaybethenormincourtrooms,too.Butnotforawhile.
That’sbecausehumansmusttrainanAImachineinthefirstplace.Andtodothat,humansmustusehistoricalevidenceanddatafromprecedentcases.Butgiventhat,historically,peoplehavebeenmorebiasedanddiscriminatorythannot,theAIcouldeasilybecomethesame.Sotherearemanystepsthatneedtobetaken–thefirstistrainingAIwithunbiasedandnon-discriminatorydata.Thiswillensurethatthemachineisnotgoingtobeinfavorofonepersonovertheother.Thesecondstepafterthismachinelearningisdeterminingwhetherthemachineisworthanyfurtherinvestment.
AlthoughAIcannotfully“replace”ajudgeorlawyer’spositionatpresent,itisstillusefulinthecourtroominmanyways.AnAImachinecangatherresearch,preventingthejudgefromhavingtogothroughlegalbooksmanually.Suchlegaltechnologyisalsoabletoaddressfundamentalcrisesincourtsbyhelpingtomakejusticeclearandefficient.Also,anAImachineisabletofilladvisoryroleslikegatheringevidenceorestimatingrecidivismratesbasedonstatisticaldata.Thissavesjudgesatremendousamountoftime.
24、创新与知识产权保护
Innovationandintellectualpropertyareintrinsicallylinked.Youcanprotectnewinventionsandcreationswiththeprovisionsofintellectualproperty(IP)lawbyprotectingothersfromprofitingfromyourinnovations.
Patentprotectionfinanciallyrewardscreatorsforinnovationsthatarecommerciallysuccessful,whichprovidesavaluableincentivetocreatelife-improvingtechnologies.Smallbusinessesandindependentinventorscanexpectareturnoninvestmentforthetimeandmoneytheyspenddevelopinganewinnovation.Society,inturn,benefitsfromboththenewinnovationandtheeconomicopportunitiesitcreates.Therevenuesfromthesetechnologiesprovideforthefinancingofadditionalresearchanddevelopmentendeavors.
Thepatentprocessturnsaninventionintoacommercialassetthroughsales,licensing,andcollaboration.Intellectualproperty(IP)assetssuchaspatentscanalsoattractinvestorstothebusiness.Thenewknowledgeandintelligencegeneratedbyaninventioncaninspirefuturecreations,whichmayleadtoadditionalpatentedinnovations.
Themappingofpatentinformationalsoallowspolicymakerstoseewherevaluableresearchanddevelopmentisoccurring,thusshapingpolicyandregulationtosupportinnovation.
25、宪法
（1）GeneralIntroduction
Mostcommonly,thetermconstitutionreferstoasetofrulesandprinciplesthatdefinethenatureandextentofgovernment.Mostconstitutionsseektoregulatetherelationshipbetweeninstitutionsofthestate,inabasicsensetherelationshipbetweentheexecutive,legislatureandthejudiciary,butalsotherelationshipofinstitutionswithinthosebranches.Forexample9executivebranchescanbedividedintoaheadofgovernment,governmentdepartments/ministries,executiveagenciesandacivilservice.
Mostconstitutionsalsoattempttodefinetherelationshipbetweenindividualsandthestate,andtoestablishthebroadrightsofindividualcitizens.Itisthusthemostbasiclawofaterritoryfromwhichalltheotherlawsandrulesarehierarchicallyderived:insometerritoriesitisinfactcalled“BasicLaw”.Constitutionsmayalsoprovidethattheirmostbasicprinciplescanneverbeabolished,evenbyamendment.Incaseaformallyvalidamendmentofaconstitutioninfringesontheseprinciples,itmayconstituteaso-calledunconstitutionalconstitutionallaw.
（2）CodifiedConstitutionandUncodifiedConstitution
1)Codifiedconstitution
Moststatesintheworldhavecodifiedconstitutions(alsoknownaswrittenconstitutions).Codifiedconstitutionsareoftentheproductofsomedramaticpoliticalchange,suchasarevolution.Theprocessbywhichacountryadoptsaconstitutioniscloselytiedtothehistoricalandpoliticalcontextdrivingthisfundamentalchange.Statesthathavecodifiedconstitutionsnormallygivetheconstitutionsupremacyoverordinarystatutelaw.Thatis,ifthereisanyconflictbetweenastatuteandthecodifiedconstitution,allorpartofthestatutecanbedeclaredultravires(越权)byacourt,andstruckdownasunconstitutional.IntheUnitedStates,theU.S.SupremeCourtisthefinalinterpreteroftheConstitutionandhasthepowertoruleontheconstitutionalityoftheactionsoftheothertwobranchesofgovernmentaswellasthoseofthestatesandothergovernmentalentities.ThroughjudicialelaborationofthemeaningoftheConstitution,theCourtcanbroadenorlimitthepowersofthePresidentandtheCongress.Insodoing,theCourtbreatheslifeintotheConstitution,makingita“living”documentthatchangesasthenationchanges.
Codifiedconstitutionsnormallyconsistofapreamble,whichsetsforththegoalsofthestateandthemotivationfortheconstitution,andseveralarticlescontainingthesubstantiveprovisions.Thepreamble,whichisomittedinsomeconstitutions,maycontainareferencetoGodand/ortofundamentalvaluesofthestatesuchasliberty,democracyorhumanrights.
2）Uncodifiedconstitution
Asof2010atleastthreestateshaveuncodifiedconstitutions：Israel,NewZealand,andtheUnitedKingdom.Uncodifiedconstitutions(alsoknownasunwrittenconstitutions)aretheproductofan“evolution”oflawsandconventionsovercenturies.Bycontrasttocodifiedconstitutions,uncodifiedconstitutionsincludewrittensourceslikeconstitutionalstatutesenactedbytheParliamentandalsounwrittensourcessuchasconstitutionalconventions,observationofprecedents,royalprerogatives,customandtradition.InthedaysoftheBritishEmpire,theJudicialCommitteeofthePrivyCouncil(枢密院)actedastheconstitutionalcourtformanyoftheBritishcoloniessuchasCanadaandAustraliawhichhadfederalconstitutions.
（2）FunctionsofConstitutions
1)Stateandlegalstructure
Oneofthekeytasksofconstitutionsistoindicatehierarchiesandrelationshipsofpower.Inaunitarystate,theconstitutionwillvestultimateauthorityinonecentraladministrationandlegislature,andjudiciary,thoughthereisoftenadelegationofpowerorauthoritytolocalormunicipalauthorities.Incontrast,afederalformofgovernmentisoneinwhichthestatesformaunionandthesovereignpowerisdividedbetweenacentralgoverningauthorityandthememberstates.TheU.S.Constitutiondelegatescertainpowerstothenationalgovernmentandthestatesretainallpowersnotdelegatedtothenationalgovernment.Therelationshipbetweenthenationalgovernmentandthestategovernmentsisapartnership；neitherpartnerissuperiortotheotherexceptwithintheparticularareaofauthoritygrantedtoitundertheU.S.Constitution.
2)Humanrights
Humanrightsorcivillibertiesformacrucialpartofacountry’sconstitutionandgoverntherightsoftheindividualagainstthestate.TheUnitedStatesandFranceeachhasacodifiedconstitutionwithabillofrights.PerhapsthemostimportantexampleistheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsundertheUNCharter.Theseareintendedtoensurebasicpolitical,socialandeconomicstandardsthatanationorintergovernmentalbodyisobligedtoprovidetoitscitizens.
3)Legislativeprocedure
Anothermainfunctionofconstitutionsmaybetodescribetheprocedurebywhichparliamentsmaylegislate.Forinstance,specialmajoritiesmayberequiredtoaltertheconstitution.Inbicameral(两院制的)legislatures,theremaybeaprocesslaidoutforsecondorthirdreadingsofbillsbeforeanewlawcanenterintoforce.
26、刑法
Oftentheterm“criminallaw”isusedtoincludeallthatisinvolvedin“theadministrationofcriminaljustice”inthebroadestsense.Assoemployeditembracesthreedifferentfields,knowntothelawyeras(1)thesubstantivecriminallaw,(2)criminalprocedure,and(3)specialproblemsintheadministrationandenforcementofcriminaljustice……Thephrase“criminallaw”ismorecommonlyusedtoincludeonlythatpartofthegeneralfieldknownasthesubstantivecriminallaw.
Capitalpunishmentmaybeimposedinsomejurisdictionsforthemostseriouscrimes.Andphysicalorcorporalpunishmentmaystillbeimposedsuchaswhippingorcaning,althoughthesepunishmentsareprohibitedinmuchoftheworld.Aconvictmaybeincarcerated（监禁）inprisonorjailandthelengthofincarcerationmayvaryfromadaytolife.
Criminallawisareflectionofthesocietythatproducesit.InanIslamictheocracy,suchasIran,criminallawwillreflectthereligiousteachingsoftheKoran（《古兰经》);inaCatholiccountry,itwillreflectthetenetsofCatholicism.Inaddition,criminallawwillchangetoreflectchangesinsociety,especiallyattitudechanges.Forinstance,useofmarijuana（大麻）wasonceconsideredaseriouscrimewithharshpenalties,whereastodaythepenaltiesinmoststatesarerelativelylight.Aspublictoleranceofmarijuanausegrew,theseverityofthepenaltieswasreduced.Asasocietyadvances,itsjudgmentsaboutcrimeandpunishmentchange.
（2）ElementsofaCrime
Obviously,differentcrimesrequiredifferentbehaviors,buttherearecommonelementsnecessaryforprovingallcrimes.First,theprohibitedbehaviordesignatedasacrimemustbeclearlydefinedsothatareasonablepersoncanbeforewarnedthatengaginginthatbehaviorisillegal.Second,theaccusedmustbeshowntohavepossessedtherequisiteintenttocommitthecrime.Third,thestatemustprovecausation.Finally,thestatemustprovebeyondareasonabledoubtthatthedefendantcommittedthecrime.
1)actusreus（犯罪行为）
Thefirstelementofcrimeistheactusreus.Actusisanactoractionandreusisapersonjudiciallyaccusedofacrime.Therefore,actusreusisliterallytheactiono￡apersonaccusedofacrime.Acriminalstatutemustclearlydefineexactlywhatactisdeemed“guilty”—thatis,theexactbehaviorthatisbeingprohibited.Thatisdonesothatallpersonsareputonnoticethatiftheyperformtheguiltyact,theywillbeliableforcriminalpunishment.Unlesstheactusreusisclearlydefined,onemightnotknowwhetherornotone'sbehaviorisillegal.
Actusreusmaybeaccomplishedbyanaction,bythreatofaction,orexceptionally,byanomissiontoact,whichisalegaldutytoact.Wheretheactusreusisafailuretoact,theremustbeadutyofcare.Suchadutycanarisethroughcontract,avoluntaryundertaking,abloodrelation,andoccasionallythroughone'sofficialposition.Dutyalsocanarisefromone'sowncreationofadangeroussituation.
2)mensrea(犯罪意图)
Asecondelementofacrimeismensrea.Mensreareferstoanindividualstateofmindwhenacrimeiscommitted.Whileactusreusisprovenbyphysicaloreyewitnessevidence,mensreaismoredifficulttoascertain.Thefactfinder(juryorjudge)mustdetermineforitselfwhethertheaccusedhadthenecessaryintenttocommittheact.
Alowerthresholdofmensreaissatisfiedwhenadefendantrecognizesanactisdangerousbutdecidestocommititanyway.Thisisrecklessness.Wrongfulnessofintentalsomayvarytheseriousnessofanoffense.Akillingcommittedwithspecificintenttokillorwithconsciousrecognitionthatdeathorseriousbodilyharmwillresult,wouldbemurder,whereasakillingaffectedbyrecklessactslackingsuchaconsciousnesscouldbemanslaughter.
3)Causation(因果关系)
Thenextelementiscausation.Oftenthephrase“butfor”(若非—则无)isusedtodeterminewhethercausationhasoccurred.Forexample,wemightsay"CainkilledAbel”,bywhichwereallymean“CaincausedAbel’sdeath.”Inotherwords,“ButforCain'sact,Abelwouldstillbealive.”Causation,then,means“butfor”theactionsofA,Bwouldnothavebeenharmed.Incriminallaw,causationisanelementthatmustbeprovenbeyondareasonabledoubt.
4)ProofbeyondaReasonableDoubt
Inviewofthefactthatincriminalcaseswearedealingwiththelifeandlibertyoftheaccusedperson,aswellasthestigmaaccompanyingconviction,thelegalsystemplacesstronglimitsonthepowerofthestatetoconvictapersonofacrime.CriminaldefendantsarepresumedinnocentThestatemustovercomethispresumptionofinnocencebyprovingeveryelementoftheoffensechargedagainstthedefendantbeyondareasonabledoubttothesatisfactionofallthejurors.ThisrequirementistheprimarywayAmericansystemminimizestheriskofconvictinganinnocentperson.
Thestatemustproveitscasewithinaframeworkofproceduralsafeguardsthataredesignedtoprotecttheaccused.Thestate’sfailuretoproveanymaterialelementofitscaseresultsintheaccusedbeingacquittedorfoundnotguilty,eventhoughheorshemayactuallyhavecommittedthecrimecharged.
(3)StrictLiability
Inmodernsociety,somecrimesrequirenomoremensrea,andtheyareknownasstrictliabilityoffenses.Forinstance,undertheRoadTrafficAct1988itisastrictliabilityoffencetodriveavehiclewithanalcoholconcentrationabovetheprescribedlimit.
27、被告人的主要权利
TherearetwofundamentalaspectsoftheU.S.criminaljusticesystem—thepresumptionthatthedefendantisinnocentandtheburdenontheprosecutiontoproveguiltbeyondareasonabledoubt.Furthermore,criminaldefendantshaveotherrightstoo.
(1)TheDefendant'sRighttoRemainSilent
TheFifthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitutionprovidesthatadefendantcannotbecompelledinanycriminalcasetobeawitnessagainsthimself.Inshort,thedefendanthastherightto“sitmute”.Theprosecutorcannotcallthedefendantasawitness,norcanajudgeordefenseattorneyforcethedefendanttotestifyifthedefendantchoosestoremainsilent.Bycontrast,adefendantmaybecalledasawitnessinacivilcase.
Adefendantinacriminaltrialmaychoosewhetherornottogiveevidenceintheproceedings.Further,thereisnogeneraldutytoassistthepolicewiththeirinquiries.
TheSupremeCourtruledthatthegovernmentcannotpunishacriminaldefendantforexercisinghisrighttosilence,byallowingtheprosecutortoaskthejurytodrawaninferenceofguiltfromthedefendant'srefusaltotestifyinhisowndefense.TheCourtoverturnedasunconstitutionalunderthefederalconstitutionaprovisionoftheCaliforniastateconstitutionthatexplicitlygrantedsuchpowertoprosecutors.
(2)TheDefendant'sRighttoConfront(对质)Witness
The“confrontationclause”oftheSixthAmendmentgivesdefendantstherighttobeconfrontedbythewitnessesagainstthem.Implicitinthisrightistherighttocross-examinewitnesses—thatis,therighttorequirethewitnessestocometocourt,“lookthedefendantintheeye”，andsubjectthemselvestoquestioning
bythedefense.TheSixthAmendmentpreventssecrettrials,andexceptforlimitedexceptions,forbidsprosecutorsfromprovingadefendant'sguiltwithwrittenstatementsfromabsentwitnesses.LikemostoftheprotectionsgivencriminaldefendantsintheConstitution,therightofconfrontingawitnesshasitsoriginsinEnglishcommonlaw.Untilthesixteenthcentury,therightofconfrontingwitnesswasnearlyabsentfromtheAnglo-Americanlegaltradition.Then,withtheintroductionoftherighttotrialbyanimpartialjuryandthefirmestablishmentofthepresumptionofinnocence,therightofconfrontationcametobeseenasanintegralpartoftheproperdefenserightsoftheaccused.
Throughcross-examination,defendantsareallowedtotestthereliabilityandcredibilityofwitnesses.However,therightofcross-examinationalsohaslimits.Forexample,defendantsmaybedeniedtherighttoaskquestionsthatareirrelevant,collateral,confusing,repetitive,orprejudicial.
(3)TheDefendant'sRighttoaPublicTrial
TheSixthAmendmentguaranteespublictrialsincriminalcases.Thisisanimportantright,becausethepresenceincourtroomsofadefendant'sfamilyandfriends,ordinarycitizensandthepresscanhelpensurethatthegovernmentobserveotherimportantrulesassociatedwithtrials.
Inafewsituations,normallyinvolvingchildren,thecourtwillclosethecourttothepublic.Forexample,judgescanbarpublicfromattendingcaseswhendefendantsarechargedwithsexualassaultsagainstchildren.Inrecentyears,legislatorshavebeenconcernedaboutdefendantswhoescapepunishmentforsexuallymolestingyoungchildrenbecausethechildrenareafraidtotestifyinthedefendant'spresence.Toaddressthisproblem,manystateshaveenactedspecialrulesthatauthorizejudges----incertainsituations----toallowchildrentotestifyviaclosedcircuittelevision.Thedefendantcanseethechildonatelevisionmonitor,butthechildcannotseethedefendant.Thedefenseattorneycanbepersonallypresentwherethechildistestifyingandcancross-examinethechild.
(4)TheDefendant’sRighttobeRepresentedbyanAttorney
TheSixthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitutionprovidesthat"inallcriminalprosecutions,theaccusedshallenjoytheright...tohavetheassistanceofcounselforhisdefense."Ajudgemustappointanattorneyforindigentdefendants(defendantswhocannotaffordtohireattorneys)atgovernmentexpenseonlyifthedefendantsmightbeactuallyimprisonedforaperiodofmorethansixmonthsforthecrime.Asapracticalmatter,judgesroutinelyappointattorneysforindigentsinnearlyallcasesinwhichajailsentenceisapossibility.
Inaseriesofcases,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledthatAmericanindigentsdohavearighttocounsel,butonlyincriminalcases.Thefederalgovernmentandsomestateshaveofficesofpublicdefenderswhichassistindigentdefendants,whileotherstateshavesystemsforoutsourcingtheworktoprivatelawyers.Ajudgenormallyappointstheattorneyforanindigentdefendantatthedefendant's1firstcourtappearance.Formostdefendants,thefirstcourtappearanceiseitheranarraignment(传讯)orabail（保释）hearing.
Thejobofdefensecounselattrialistoprepareandofferavigorousdefenseonbehalfoftheaccused.Aproperdefenseofteninvolvesthepresentationofevidenceandtheexaminationofwitness,allofwhichrequirescarefulthoughtandplanning.Goodattorneys,likequalitycraftspeopleeverywhere,mayfindthemselvesemotionallycommittedtotheoutcomeoftrialsinwhichtheyareinvolved.
28、合同法
Acontractisalegallyenforceableagreementbetweentwoormorepartieswithmutualobligations.Contractscanbeinwriting,orallyorverballyagreedupon(parolcontracts)orcreatedthroughtheactingsoftheparties.Theremedyatlawforbreachofcontractisusually“damages”(损害赔偿)ormonetarycompensation.Inequity,theremedycanbespecificperformanceofthecontractoraninjunction.TheimportanceofcontractstabilityisemphasizedbyArticleI§10oftheU.S.Constitution,whichprovidesthat“NoStateshall...passany…LawimpairingtheObligationofContracts.”Atcommonlaw,theelementsofacontractaremutualassentandconsideration(对价).
(1)MutualAssent:OfferandAcceptance
Atcommonlaw,mutualassentistypicallyreachedthroughofferandacceptance,thatis,whenanofferismetwithanacceptancethatdoesnotvarytheoffer’sterms.Therequirementisknownasthe“mirrorimage”rule.Ifapurportedacceptancedoesvarythetermsofanoffer,itisnotanacceptancebutacounterofferand,therefore,simultaneouslyarejectionoftheoriginaloffer.
(2)ClassificationofContract
1)Expresscontractandimpliedcontract.
Anexpresscontractisoneinwhichthetermsarestatedbytheparties;itmaybeeitheranoralorwrittencontract.Animpliedcontractisonethatisinferredfromtheconductoftheparties.
2)Bilateralcontractandunilateralcontract.
Abilateralcontractisoneinwhichthepartiesexchangepromisestodosomefutureact.Forexample,youagreewiththecardealerthatyouwillpayforyourcarwhenyoutakedeliverynextweek.Eachofyouhaspromisedtodosomethinginthefuture:thedealertodeliverthecarandyoutopayforit.Incontrast,aunilateralcontractisoneinwhichonepartyactsimmediatelyinresponsetotheoffer.
3)Executorycontractandexecutedcontract.
Anexecutorycontractisoneinwhichsomeorallofthetermsareuncompleted----thecardealinaboveparagraph,forexample.Anexecutedcontract,then,isonewhichalltermshavebeencompleted.Forinstance,youhaveeatenyourmealandpaidyourbillattherestaurant.
4)Void,voidableandunenforceablecontract.(无效、可撤销和不可强制执行的合同)
Theterms“void,voidableandunenforceable”arerelevantinsituationswherethereisabreachofcontractorwhenonepartyfailstocomplywiththetermsoftheagreement.Avoidcontractisanullityfromitsbeginning,anddamagesdonotresult.Avoidablecontractisonethatisbindinguntilitisdisaffirmedorcanceledbythepartywiththeauthoritytodoso.Inmanyways,marriageisacontractthateitherpartymayrescindbyobtainingadivorce.Unenforceablecontractsarethosethatmeetthebasiccommonlawelementsforcontractsbutlacksomeotheradditionalle-galrequirementssuchasbeingsignedinfrontofanotarypublic(公证人).
29、侵权法
Atort,incommonlawjurisdictions,isawrong(不法行为)thatinvolvesabreachofacivilduty(otherthanacontractualduty)owedtosomeoneelse.Itisdifferentiatedfromacrime,whichinvolvesabreachofadutyowedtosocietyingeneral.Thoughmanyactsarebothtortsandcrimes,prosecutionsforcrimearemostlytheresponsibilityofthestate,privateprosecutionsbeingrarelyused；whereasanypartywhohasbeeninjuredmaybringalawsuitfortort.Onewhocommitsatortiousactiscalledatortfeasor（侵权行为人）.
Apersonwhosuffersatortiousinjuryisentitledtoreceive“damages”(损害赔偿金),usuallymone-tarycompensation,fromthepersonorpeopleresponsibleforthoseinjuries.Tortlawdefineswhatalegalinjuryisand,therefore,whetherapersonmaybeheldliableforaninjuryheorshehascaused.Legalinjuriesarenotlimitedtophysicalinjuries.Theymayalsoincludeemotional,economic,orreputationalinjuriesaswellasviolationsofprivacy,property,orconstitutionalrights.Tortcasesthereforecomprisesuchvariedtopicsasautoaccidents,falseimprisonment,defamation,productliability(fordefectiveconsumerproducts),copyrightinfringement,andenvironmentalpollution,amongmanyothers.
Inmuchofthecommonlawworld,themostprominenttortliabilityisnegligence.Iftheinjuredpartycanprovethatthepersonbelievedtohavecausedtheinjuryactednegligently,thatis,withouttakingreasonablecaretoavoidinjuringothers----tortlawwillallowcompensation.
Furthermore,tortlawalsorecognizesintentionaltorts,whereapersonhasintentionallyactedinawaythatharmsanother,and“strictliability”orquasi-tort,whichallowsrecoveryundercertaincircumstanceswithouttheneedtodemonstratenegligence.Hence,tortsmaybedividedintoNegligence,IntentionalTorts,andQuasi-Torts.
(1)Negligence
Thestandardtortactionisnegligence.Thetortofnegligenceprovidesacauseofactionleadingtodamages,ortorelief,ineachcasedesignedtoprotectlegalrights,includingthoseofpersonalsafety,property,and,insomecases,intangibleeconomicinterests.Negligenceactionsincludeclaimscomingprimarilyfromcaraccidentsandpersonalinjuryaccidentsofmanykindsincludingclinicalnegligence,worker'snegligenceandsoforth.Productliabilitycases,suchasthoseinvolvingwarranties,mayormaynotbeconsiderednegligenceactions.
Negligenceisabreachoflegaldutytotakecareresultingindamagetotheplaintiff.Thelegalburdenofprovingelementsofnegligencefallsupontheplaintiff.Theelementsindeterminingtheliabilityfornegligenceare:
a)Thetortfeasorowedadutyofcare;
b)Therewasabreachofthatduty；
c)Thetortfeasordirectlycausedtheinjury,thatis,therewasproximatecause；
d)Theplaintiffsuffereddamageasare,suitofthatbreach；
Thereareanumberofsituationsinwhichthecourtsrecognizetheexistenceofadutyofcare.Inadditiontoageneraldutyofcare,adutymayalsoariseasaresultofsomesortofspecialrelationshipbetweentheparties.Examplesincludeoneroad-usertoanother,employertoemployee,manufacturertoconsumer,doctortopatientandsolicitortoclient.
(2)Intentionaltorts
Intentionaltortsincludecertaintortsarisingfromtheoccupation/useoflandandtrespasstochattels.Anydirectinterference,suchasenteringlandwithouttheoccupier'sconsentordispossessinghimofabook,ahat,orapictureisactionable.Severalintentionaltortsdonotinvolveland.Examplesincludefalseimprisonment,thetortofunlawfullyarrestingordetainingsomeone,anddefamation(insomejurisdictionssplitintolibelandslander),wherefalseinformationisbroadcastedanddamagestheplaintiff'sreputation.
(3)Quasi-torts
Quasi-tortmeansatortforwhichanon-perpetratorisheldliable.Inaquasitort,apersonwhodidnotactuallycommitawrongisheldliable.Forinstance,amasterwillbeheldliableforatortcommittedbyaservantundertheprincipleofvicariousliability.
(4)StrictLiability
Tortliabilityiscustomarilydividedintointentionaltortliability,negligenceliabilityandstrictliability.Strictliabilitymakessomepersonsresponsiblefordamagestheiractionsorproductscause,regardlessofany“fault”ontheirpart.Strictliabilitymainlyincludesbutisnotrestrictedtothefollowingsituations:
AbnormallyDangerous(ultrahazardous)Activities:Strictliablityoftenapplieswhenpeopleengageininherentlyhazardousactivities,suchasburstingdams,“blow-out”oilwellstestingrocketmotors,orblastingonaconstructionsite.Ifaplaintiffisinjuredbytheseactivities----nomatterhowcarefulthedoerwas----he/sheisliablefortheinjury.
ProductsLiability:Strictliabilityalsomayapplyinthecaseofcertainmanufacturedproducts.Instrictproductliability,typicallyanyonewhoisengagedinthestreamoftheproduct(fromthemanufacturertothewhole-salertotheretailer,orallofthem)canbeheldresponsibleiftheproductwasdefectiveandsomeonewasinjured.ThereisnoneedtoprovenegligencebuttheinjuredpartymustProvethattheproductwasdefective.
30、公司法
Corporatelawisapartofabroadercompanieslaw(orlawofbusinessassociations).InUK,businessassociationscanincludepartnerships,trusts(likeapensionfund),corporationslimitedbysharesorcompanieslimitedbyguarantee(likesomeuniversitiesorcharities).UScorporationsaregenerallyclassifiedintoCcorporations,SCorporations,closecorporations,publiccorporations,professionalcorporationsandnon-for-profitcorporations.
Thefourcharacteristicsofthemoderncorporationare:
(1)SeparateLegalPersonalityofthecorporation(therighttosueandbesuedinitsownnamei.e.thelawtreatsthecompanyasahumanbeing);
(2)LimitedLiabilityoftheshareholders(sothatwhenthecompanyisinsolvent,theyonlyowethemoneythattheysubscribedforshares);
(3)Shares(usuallyonastockexchangesuchastheLondonStockExchange,NewYorkStockExchange);
(4)DelegatedManagement(inotherwords,controlofthecompanyplacedinthehandsofaboardofdirectors).
Oneofthekeylegalfeaturesofcorporationsistheirseparatelegalpersonality,alsoknownas“personhood"orbeing“artificialpersons”.However,theseparatelegalpersonalitywasnotconfirmedunderEnglishlawuntil1895bytheHouseo￡LordsinSalomonv.Salomon&Co.,Ltd.
Therearecertainspecificsituationswherecourtsaregenerallypreparedto“piercethecorporateveil”(揭开公司面纱)tolookdirectlyat,andimposeliabilitydirectlyontheindividualsbehindthecompany.Themostcommonlycitedexamplesare：
a)wherethecompanyisamerefaade（空壳）；
b)wherethecompanyiseffectivelyjusttheagentofitsmembersorcontrollers；
c)wherearepresentativeofthecompanyhastakensomepersonalresponsibilityforanaction；
d)wherethecompanyisengagedinfraudorothercriminalwrongdoing；
e)wherepermittedbystatute(forexample,manyjurisdictionsprovideforshareholderliabilitywhereacompanybreachesenvironmentalprotectionlaws)；
f)inmanyjurisdictions,whereacompanycontinuestotradedespiteforeseeablebankruptcythedirectorscanbeforcedtoaccountfortradinglossespersonally.